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Joohyun Ha, Jiyoon Lee, Jan Li, Danny Qiu, Devendra Shivraj, Sunny Zhang
Pd. 2
1) Evaluate the cultural changes and continuities over time in MESOAMERICAN society from
600 to 1450.
-Thesis: Between 600 and 1450 in Mesoamerica, religion and women played important roles in
society, while the role of the military varied as time went on.
-Religion
-dominated public life. Maya and Aztecs both polytheistic.
-prevalent theme in art and architecture. Numerous temples/pyramids were constructed in cities,
which served as centers for religious gatherings.
-Priests communicated with gods. Used their power to make sure religion was always important
in society.
-Warfare infused with religious meaning. People sometimes fought for the sole purpose of
capturing sacrificial victims.
-Military
-Maya city-states were never able to unify. Fought each other to capture prisoners for sacrifice or
labor.
-Aztecs were an empire that focused on territorial expansion. Population boost led to greater
pressures for resources and food. They imposed a tribute system on their subjects that provided
¼ of food for their capital, Tenochtitlan. Warriors were greatly respected, and were awarded land
and prestige. The military also provided a means of social mobility.
-Women
-played important roles in society and were respected.
- As men were so often away on the battlefield, women had to take on responsibilities.
-Maya women used their noble blood to help legitimize their husbands’ rule.
-Aztec women were seen as founders of lineages. This image greatly elevates the status of
women compared to other women from other societies.
-Women played important roles in the household, markets, religious rituals at home, and were
also teachers, priestesses, and healers.
2) Describe and explain the continuities and changes in religious beliefs and practices from 1450
to the present in LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN.
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In 1450, Latin America was controlled by civilizations and was composed of different
cultures, though many were politically united under empires, primarily the Aztec and Inca.
• Culturally, Latin Americans differed greatly from Europeans.
• Women played an important role in society and were revered; people were
polytheistic and performed human sacrifices to the gods.
• However, they shared some similarities, in that they had a bureaucracy, agricultural
technology, social classes, trade, and internal warfare.
From 1492 to the eighteenth century, Europeans explored and eventually took control of
Latin America and its people.
• Most inhabitants fell under the jurisdiction of Spanish rulers, while a select few (isolated
from civilization) managed to preserve their culture, uncontacted by foreign powers.
• Long-standing traditions were replaced with European ways; polytheism, women's
roles in society, sacrifices, and the previous governmental system were among those
replaced with slavery, Catholicism, and a colonial government similar to aristocratic
monarchies in Europe.
In the early nineteenth century, direct European control of Latin America began to fade.
• After a few decades, revolutionary ideas from the Enlightenment had reached Latin
America, and by 1830 the vast majority of Latin America was independent, led by figures
such as Simon Bolivar.
• Colonial governments loyal to Europe were replaced with republics which decreed
constitutions, political freedom, legislative branches of government, and other
elements of a free republic.
• In addition to political change, industrialization occurred some time after it began in
Britain. Industries grew, infrastructure expanded rapidly, and elites, both foreign and
domestic, profited off of the wealth brought by industrialization.
In the early twentieth century, Latin America was heavily affected by the Great Depression.
• As its economy was heavily based on exports, its trade dried up when industrialized
nations reduced foreign trade to concentrate domestically.
• Authoritarian military rulers took over governments as popular support for liberal
democratic governments fell due to a bad economy.
• Additionally, new political ideas crossed the Atlantic Ocean.
• Nationalism and anti-imperialism increased unity among Latin American nations
against developed nations like Britain.
• This led to new governments supported by the people and oriented around change
towards the left (in the political spectrum), like the government headed by Peron
in Argentina.
• For example, Cardenas of Mexico is notable for nationalizing Mexico's oil
industry in the face of British protests.
• A short time later, communism and socialism increased in popularity, and popular
demand for change resulted in new leaders issuing popular reforms.
• In the United States, these actions were perceived as signs of nations falling to
communism, leading to coups and interventions such as the overthrow of Arbenz
in Guatemala in 1954 and the funding of right-wing Contra rebels around
Nicaragua.
• Some nations, like Cuba, managed to maintain left-wing positions in the face of
American military might.
• American interventions and changes undergone by left-wing governments resulted in lack
of stability and continues to impact Latin America to this day.
3) Analyze the changes and continuities in labor systems in the period from 1750-1900 in LATIN
AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN. In your analysis, be sure to discuss the causes of the
changes and reasons for the continuities.
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Continuities- Between 1750 and 1900, one aspect of labor systems that remained
unchanged was that people who took part in these labor systems were usually immigrants or
foreigners.
For most of the 18th and 19th century, Latin American and the Caribbean were controlled
by a plantocracy, a small group of elites who owned most of the land and slaves.
At first, Portuguese landowners in Brazil used Amerindian slaves, but turned towards
African slaves after seeing that they were easier to use because they worked more
productively and they were resistant to diseases that Amerindians were not immune to.
Slavery often continued even after slave trade had been abolished.
Indentured servitude had always existed; but it increased after the abolition of the slave
trade. Indentured servants were unable to pay for the trip from Europe to the Americas.
They had to pay back their debt in the form of labor. This increased as immigration to the
Americas increased.
The encomienda system, in which the Amerindians were forced to work for the Spanish
government, began long before the 1700’s. It was replaced by the hacienda system, estates
controlled by a few wealthy people.
In Peru, there was a labor system called mita, where one-seventh of Amerindian men were
forced to work for a few months in every year with mines, farms, and textile factories. This
ended in 1823.
Changes- after the 1700’s, there was a decline in the need for forced labor as the newly
independent Latin American countries sought to promote economic reform; eventually, old
systems of labor such as encomienda, mita, and hacienda became outdated.
Following the successful Haitian Revolution where Haitian people declared independence
from the French, other countries were influenced to start their own independence
movements such as Simon Bolivar throughout northern South America, marking a decrease
in forced labor systems.
The Constitution of 1914 in Mexico marked the end of debt peonage, the paying off debt
with labor. This happened as a result of the Mexican Revolution in 1910.
Many people were dissatisfied with their lives because of the growing economic gap
between the rich and the poor. The peasants made up a majority of Mexico, yet they only
owned 15% of the land. They demanded reforms in the revolution.
The slave trade was abolished, and subsequently slavery itself was abolished before the 20th
century.
In Brazil, slavery ended in 1888. Many slaves had helped the Brazilian army defeat
Paraguay during war. Their bravery persuaded many Brazilians about the injustices of
slavery. In addition, educated Brazilians saw slavery as an impediment to economic and
democratic reform.
In the Caribbean, pressure from a coalition of British labor unions, Protestant ministers and
traders led to the abolition of slavery in 1834. However, the emancipated slaves were still
obligated to stay with their former masters as apprentices.
4) Analyze how LATIN AMERICA’S relationship to global trade patterns changed from 1750 to
the present.
Thesis: From 1750 C.E. to the present day, the relationship between Latin America and global
trade patterns changed in that a large part of the global trade network which dealt with the
transport of African slaves to Latin America to be used as a labor force was discontinued, but
remained the same in that Latin America always played an important role in global trade patterns
as they supplied a large part of the world’s goods.
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Imperial nations tried to exploit their colonies for its resources by controlling their
imports and exports, and the price at which they traded for on the global market
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New leaders like Bolivar and Martin rose to power in the Americas promising to liberate
the continents from colonialism.
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As a result of Enlightenment ideals, the abolition of slavery began to be considered an
important social issue. (People began to question why they were fighting in the name of
freedom, when they held an entire people enslaved).
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The Atlantic Triangular Trade System was a trading network between Europe, Africa, and
the Americas that saw the transportation of raw materials, finished goods, and African
slaves.
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Imperial nations kept Latin American colonies under their grip by forcing them to
produce raw materials that would be shipped out to the homeland to be processed and
then in turn sold back to the colonies (Latin Americans lacked the machinery and
industry).
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In 1808, the African Slave trade was formally abolished, but in some countries like Brazil
and Cuba, slavery would continue well into the 1880s.
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Not only did this change global trading patterns at the time, it also established a turning
point in history as human rights of all men began to be recognized universally.
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The trading network between Latin America and the rest of the world evolved to meet
changing times, but always existed.
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Goods that were exchanged during the time of the Iberian (Spanish and Portuguese) rule
of Latin America continued to be exchanged hundreds of years later in these nations.
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Even with the rise of reform-minded leaders such as Peron and Vargas and the
industrialization of their nations there was always a system of trade established between
these nations and the rest of the world as the goods being exchanged were too valuable to
give up.
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In other non-industrialized nations, the trend stayed the same as underdeveloped Latin
American nations relied upon the Western Powers for the majority of its industrial goods.
5) Analyze how NORTH AMERICA’S relationship to global trade patterns changes from 1750 to
the present.
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North American countries, the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, were colonies of Great Britain
and Spain in 1750. They mainly traded with their mother countries and exported raw
materials. Various crops and other raw materials such as maize, potatoes, beans, dyes,
cotton, fur, and tobacco were the major exports. Europe provided North American
countries manufactured goods.
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Slave trade was another major trade until it was banned in early 1800’s. Slaves from
Africa were traded with items such as gold, ivory, and timber. Even when the trade was
banned, because of profit, traders smuggled slaves into North American continent.
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After gaining independence, the U.S. traded with European countries other than its
mother country much more freely. Through trade and immigration of Europeans with
technical knowledge, North American countries, especially the U.S., began
industrializing.
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In the U.S., railroads, road system, improvements in transportation, mechanization,
factory system, and mass production greatly increased the amount of manufactured
products. Industrial Revolution changed the export from mainly agricultural products into
mainly manufactured products.
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Mexico developed an extensive mining industry of petroleum. Mexico began
industrializing as well. By 1910, Mexico had 12000 miles of railroad track. Canada began
exporting and currently still is exporting coal and iron.
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Although North American countries are one of the largest exporting countries in the
world, they still export large amount of crops and livestock to foreign markets due to
their vast arable territory such as the Great Plain in the U.S. and the Canadian prairie.
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In 1994, Mexico, the United States, and Canada made the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) that eliminated tariffs among the three countries. In 1995, World
Trade Organization (WTO) was established among 153 major trading countries in the
world to foster international trade.
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Before the Industrial Revolution, North American countries almost only exported raw
materials and imported manufactured goods from European nations. After the Industrial
Revolution, North American countries became one of the largest exporters of
manufactured goods although they still export large amount of agricultural products.
6) Analyze major changes and continuities in the formation of national identities in LATIN
AMERICA from 1750 to the present. Be sure to include evidence from specific countries in
the region selected.
Thesis: As people saw that their countries would be better off independent, nationalism and selfidentity movements rose up throughout Latin America. Latin Americans would change from
being unorganized groups of people to becoming a nation that was supported by nationalistic
ideas. While these nations fought for their national identities, foreign influence would
continually be present.
• The Haitian Revolution
• Haiti was originally a slave colony for the French and were united under Toussaint
L’Overture to fight back against the French who treated them poorly.
• These nationalistic ideas came from Enlightenment ideas.
• First Latin American country to achieve independence.
• However due to the loss of France’s colony, the French imposed a trade embargo unless
Haiti paid for France’s losses. The Haitian government received loans from foreign banks
and as a result, they are controlled through debt.
• Independence for Argentina
• Viceroy was overthrown after Napoleon took control of Spain because there was no loyalty.
• Went on to develop national identities by establishing government without European
connections.
• The Rise of Juan and Eva Perón led to Argentina becoming united under a common sense
of national pride, Peronism.
• Cuban Independence
• One of the last Latin American countries to gain independence.
• Assisted by US during the Spanish-American War and granted independence with the
Treaty of Paris.
• Change from one of Spain’s remaining colonies to a nation with it’s own culture and ideas.
• Saw that Spain was incapable of ruling over them, which developed into a nationalistic
idea in which people tried to make Cuba even better.
• Still influenced by foreign nations like Russia during the Cold War.
• The Cuban Missile crisis brought the world to the brink of a nuclear war.
• Communist ideas tried to win over the Cuban population, but Cubans wanted to stick to
what they used to believe in.