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Tales from Later Mughuls
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Tales from Later Mughuls
Mubarak Ali
Tarikh Publications
Book Street, 68-Mozang Road, Lahore
e-mail: [email protected]
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Copyright© 2014
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E-mail: [email protected]
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Contents
18th Century India
7
The Decline of Power
12
Death of the Institutions
16
Dynastic Rule
20
The Salatin
24
Story of a Mughals
28
Financial condition of the Later Mughals
32
Manners and Society
36
The Etiquette of Mughal Court
40
Decadence of the Mughal Nobility
44
Nobility on the Decline
48
Of Sadists and Savages
52
The King makers
55
The Downfall of Awadh
59
The Basis of Feudal Culture
63
The Glamour of Feudal culture
67
State of Mughal Army
71
Soldiering on
74
The Looting Soldiers
78
Deadlier than the Male
81
The Pindaris
85
Rise of Military Adventurer
89
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From Mulitary Adventurer to Nawab
93
Europeans in India
97
European Military Adventurers
101
Soldiers on Hire
105
Indian Culture and the British
109
Marriage and the Indian Culture
113
The English Factory
117
Symbols of Culture
121
Indianisation of the British
124
Change of Relationship
127
Company Bahadur
131
The Cusatomhouse
134
Justfying Colonialism
137
Company and Its Collaborators
141
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18th Century India
The 18th century in the history of India is fascinating.
It is full of interesting events and radical changes which took
place in the social and political structure of the Indian
society. The historians of this period recorded not only
political events but narrated the social, economic, and
cultural conditions of the age which they personally
experienced. As the Mughal power declined and rulers and
nobility, facing financial crisis, failed to patronise them, the
historians no longer remained servants to the court and the
aristocracy and assumed an independent status to write
their views about the situation.
The main feature of the historiography of this period
was that historical narratives no longer moved around great
persons but shifted to other aspects of society. However, the
historians emphasised the deteriorating condition of the
imperial court and the decadent character of the nobility.
They severely criticised the king and condemned the nobles
who were involved in corruption and intrigues. Some
historians, finding no place at the royal court, migrated to
the successive states in the hope of patronisation and some
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of them retired to their home towns and started writing the
history of their cities and families. Therefore, it broadened
the range of historiography and its scope.
Moreover, a new class of historians emerged who
belonged to the middle class such as kayaths, moneychangers (sarraf), and scribes (munshi). They changed the
writing style and adopted simple language instead of the
traditional complex one which was used by the elite class of
historians. Due to these historians we have plenty of
historical material on the events of the 18th century.
Poets were not lagging behind historians to depict
their period. Their poetry reflects the social, cultural and
political condition of the period. Mir Taqi Mir (1702-1810),
Sauda (1713-81), Dard (1720-85), Nazir Akbarabadi (17401830) and other Urdu poets expressed their feelings of the
period in their poetry; especially the genre of literature
known as Shahr ashob describes in detail the miserable
condition of the society. There is sadness and sorrow which
reflects the helplessness and despondency of the people.
Religious scholar, Shah Waliullah (d.1762), while analysing
the condition of the state, presented a solution regarding
how to revive the Mughal power. However, his interest was
to keep the Hindus under subjugation.
Modern historians are trying to point out important
changes which took place during this century. For example,
there emerged new regional identities. As the Marhattas,
Jats, Sikhs, Rajputs, and Ruhellas acquired power in their
regions, the loyalty of the people shifted from the Mughal
rulers to their regional warlords. However, as these states
were modelled on the Mughal state, with the same
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exploitative institutions, the fate of the people did not
change. Civil wars, factional conflicts of the Mughal nobility
and breakdown of the imperial system plagued northern
India. The movement of armies destroyed villages, as a
result of which agriculture suffered. The peasants, deprived
of their livelihood, joined the bands of robbers, thugs, and
criminals. It made the route unsafe which resulted in the
collapse of trade and commerce.
Ashin Das Gupta in his article `Trade and Politics in
Eighteen Century India` argues that India was divided into
two parts coastal and mainland. The coastal part became the
centre of trade and commerce while the mainland was
deprived of commercial activities. In the early period Surat,
Hugly and Musalipatam were important ports which
supplied commodities and goods to the mainland; the
merchants of Surat were especially famous for their
commercial ventures as indicated by a report, written in
1700, by the English Council to England that the Surat
traders had so many ships that if the European merchants
did not counter them they would lose their ground.
The coastal trade suffered when trade routes no
longer remained safe as a result of the chaotic conditions of
the mainland. They failed to get supply from northern India,
especially cloth and indigo. The Marhattas bands of looters
raided and plundered Gujarat. This gradually reduced the
importance of coastal towns. At the same time the East India
Company developed Madras, Bombay and Calcutta as their
trading ports which were safe and so the Indian merchants
also turned towards them for trading. In this way the
Company got its Indian allies in trade which later on helped
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it in getting political ascendancy.
Sahukars or money lenders became a prominent class
in this period. As the rulers and tha aristocracy had lost their
source of income and the collection of revenue was not
assured, they turned towards money-lenders for loans to
meet their day-to-day expenses. Though it was a risky
business, they not only survived but prospered.
Karen Leonard in her article `Great Firm Theory`
points out the emergence and importance of the banking
families in the 18th century. As the royal power lost its
financial resources, it sought the help of the banking families
to get loans. During this period these families played two
important roles to give loans to rulers and nobles, and to
take charge of collecting revenue, minting coins and acting
as treasurers. She especially points out a firm founded by a
Jain merchant which moved from Rajputana to Putna and
from there to Deccan and then to Murshidabad. In Bengal its
head was Jagat Seth. In the battle of Plassey he sided with
the Company against Siraj-ud-Daula just for his commercial
interest. The Company in the early period required the help
of other bankers but once it assumed political power, it cut
off all its relations with these firms.
If we compare India of the 18th century to presentday Pakistan, we can find some similarities. Our political
situation is the same chaotic and uncontrollable, breakdown
of administration and governance, and violent conflicts
among warring groups which consequently is leading to
financial collapse. The government, to meet the expenses,
turned towards modern sahukars such as the IMF, World
Bank and other agencies for loans. Modern East India
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Company is controlling our policies in their interest and our
rulers are playing the role of puppets.
However, we have one more problem and that is
religious extremism which was not present in 18th century
India.
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The Decline of Power
Studying the history of the decline of an empire, we
find that degeneration does not come all of a sudden but
occurs slowly and gradually, weakening the political, social,
and economic foundation and reducing it to such a position
where sometimes a simple incident or accident causes its
collapse.
One such example is the Mughal Empire which was
founded by Babur (1526-30), expanded and strengthened
by Akbar (1556-1605) who established state institutions
with minute details. These details and their organisation,
given by Abul Fazl in A`in-i-Akbari, show the genius of
Akbar. These institutions worked well as long as the
situation was relevant to their functioning. However, with
the passage of time there were new challenges, and new
forces emerged which required radical changes in the
administrative structure.
The Mughal state failed to bring such changes and
insisted on continuing the same system because it provided
benefits and privileges to mansabdars or bureaucrats who
were enjoying a high status and position in the government.
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They owned landed property, possessed wealth, and had
high titles which increased their prestige in the society. In
the later period, most of them lacked the merit, intelligence
and
efficiency
which
were
the
hallmark
of
their
predecessors. The breakdown of the bureaucratic system`s
administrative problems could not be resolved and
subsequently the state suffered and lost its writ.
The nobility was further divided on ethnic basis such
as Turaniana (people from Central Asia), Iranians and
Rajputs, which led to civil wars and factional fights, causing
relationships
between
the
emperor
and
nobles
to
deteriorate. Every successive emperor became a stooge in
the hands of some faction who used him for its own
advantage; for example the Saiyyad brothers became so
powerful that they played the role of king makers.
The most important feature of the later period was
the emergence of regional powers which included the
Marhattas, Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, and Ruhellas. The Mughal
state and aristocracy refused to recognise their national
ambitions and were not ready to give them any share or
space. When these powers rebelled, the Mughal state
regarded it a serious challenge to its authority and instead of
negotiating or integrating them into the imperial system,
adopted force to crush their uprisings. Rebellion against the
empire was regarded as a serious crime and the only
method was to put it down with the help of military force.
The result was that the state got involved in a series
of wars and suffered militarily and financially and by the
18th century it did not have enough resources to meet such
expenses. Its military system was no longer efficient enough
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to face the regional armies who were fighting with a
nationalist spirit. Moreover, declaration of war closed all
doors of negotiation and created deep hatred among
opponents.
The Mughal forces defeated Banda Beragi (d.1716)
who raised the standard of rebellion in the Punjab during
Farrukhsiyar`s (1713-19) period. He was taken prisoner and
executed. This made him a hero of the Sikh community who
continued to fight against the Mughal state. Surajmal Jat
(1707-1763) of Bharatpur state became so powerful that he
raided the vicinity of the capital and looted and plundered
while the Mughal state remained helpless to counter him.
The result of these conflicts was that people shifted their
loyalties to their regional rulers and the Mughal emperor
and the state lost their control.
Compare past to present and we have some lessons to
learn from history. The Pakistani bureaucracy has become a
financial burden on the state exchequer because of its
privileges and perks. It has become irrelevant in the face of
the growing challenges to the society and corruption has
eroded its integrity and capability in much the same manner
as the Mughal mansabdari system; there is a crisis of
governance which it has failed to resolve.
The factional conflict among the political parties in a
bid to get power and privileges has caused chaos and
anarchy. It reminds us of the intrigues of the Mughal nobility
which violated all moral norms.
The
emergence
of
nationalist
movements
in
Balochistan, Sindh and NWFP are ignored and treated with
contempt by our ruling classes, much the same as the
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Mughal state. Those individuals who resist state oppression
are arrested, tortured and killed like Banda Beragi. The
result of this policy is that people of these regions are
shifting their loyalties from nation to region. Regional
identity is becoming more a matter of pride than the
national one.
The recent war in NWPF involved the army in a
situation that cannot be solved easily like Suraj Mal Jat who
founded a separate kingdom, independent from the
Mughals.
The result is that the Pakistani state and its
institutions have lost their credibility and prestige.
Politically and financially the state is so weak that its
survival depends on foreign aid rather than its own
resources. It is becoming a puppet state like the Mughals
who depended first on the Marhattas` power and then the
East India Company.
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Death of the Institutions
There is a close relationship between individuals and
institutions. On one hand, individuals are responsible for
building institutions and changing them according to the
need of the time.
On the other hand, institutions produce and train
individuals and provide them space to display their talents.
As a result of the cooperation between these two, society
can face challenges and absorb the shocks of political
upheavals and economic and social crises. However, when
the relationship between the two is broken, and individuals
and institutions no longer remain associated with each
other, society faces chaos and anarchy.
In case of the Mughal state, there is heated discussion
among historians as to who was responsible for its decline
individuals or institutions? Those who argue that the
collapse of institutions was the main cause of the
disintegration of the Mughal Empire, point out that the most
powerful institution of kingship had lost all its power,
integrity, and capability in the 18th century. Transfer of
power no longer remained a peaceful process. Wars of
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succession not only weakened the position of the ruler but
also led to the disintegration of the nobility into different
factions. The dynastic monopoly of the Mughals over
kingship slowly caused a degeneration of the intellectual
capability of rulers and produced inept and untalented
persons to occupy the throne. Their only claim to legitimacy
was belonging to the ruling dynasty.
The second important institution which no longer
sustained its original form was the Mansabdari system
which was the civil and military bureaucracy organised by
Akbar. It suffered financially when there was a `crisis of
Jagirdari system`. Due to political weakness, local zamindars
refused to pay revenue. The only way to extract surplus was
with the help of force. An alternative solution, which was
adopted, was to auction jagirs to contractors (ijaradars) who
forcibly collected revenue after paying jagirdars their share.
The result was that the Mughal emperor lost all his personal
landed property and became a stipend holder of the
Marhattas and the East India Company.
Political weakness tempted first Nadir Shah to invade
India in 1738-9, and later on Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1748,
1756-7 and 1761. Both invaders plundered all the
accumulated wealth of the Great Mughals and took it away
to Afghanistan.
Moreover, weakness of the imperial institutions
encouraged regional powers to assert their autonomy. The
Marhattas, Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs, and Ruhelas challenged the
Mughal sovereignty and resisted the central authority. The
centre tried to crush their rebellions but, having no power,
was forced to leave them alone and the Mughal Empire
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reluctantly surrendered to the regional powers.
Historians argue that because of the collapse of these
institutions, individuals could not play any positive role to
check the Mughal decline, though there were several capable
people including Nizamul Mulk, Murshid Quli, Safdar Jang,
Zakarya Khan and Swai Jai Singh. Finding no space at the
centre, Nizamul Mulk founded his own independent state of
Hyderabad, Murshid Quli Khan went to Bengal and carved
his own state, and Safdar Jang made Owadh independent
from the centre. All these successive states prospered and
attracted talented people to their courts. It made the centre
weak and vulnerable. The Mughal emperor became a puppet
in the hands of the occupying forces the Marhattas and the
English.
The analysis is that the bankruptcy of state
institutions provided no potential to individuals who left the
centre and deviated to the peripheries to use their talent and
energy. The regional powers defied the centre and asserted
their own authority. The Mughal state lost its control and
succumbed to decline.
Keeping in view this historical background, when we
analyse the condition of the Pakistani state we find that just
after partition it inherited two powerful institutions the
bureaucracy and the army. They were so powerful that no
other institution was allowed to grow and take root. Most of
our rulers came from these two institutions such as Ghulam
Muhammad, Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Iskander Mirza, and
Ghulam Ishaq Khan from the bureaucracy while Ayub Khan,
Yahya Khan, Ziaul Haq, and Pervez Musharraf from the
army. Those individuals who came from outside of these
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remained under the influence of these two and could not
play an independent role.
As a result, no individual could survive outside of
these
two
institutions.
In
absence
of
democratic,
educational, and professional institutions, society failed to
produce such persons who could play an effective role in
changeing the structure of the state. As all major political
parties are controlled by dynasties, there was no space for
talented individuals to display their talents of leadership.
Disappointed by the situation, professionals migrated to
developed countries leaving the space open for the
mediocre.
Consequently, the condition is so dismal that,
intellectually, the society is no longer capable of handling
internal as well as external challenges. The result of overcentralisation is that power and wealth is concentrated in
one place depriving the regions of their role. In the past it
led to the separation of Bangladesh and rising nationalist
movements in Balochistan and Sindh.
The lesson of history is that the Mughal state declined
because of the weaknesses of its institutions and the
Pakistani state is in crisis because of its two powerful
institutions which ignored the role of individuals outside of
their sphere and did not allow other parallel institutions to
come up and play their role in the development of the
country.
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Dynastic Rule
The Mughal dynasty, which was founded by Babur
(1526-1530), acquired such legitimacy that after Aurangzeb
(1658-1707), even though it was on the verge of decline, it
had such a powerful image that neither the Marhattas nor
the British had the courage to expel it and replace it with a
new one. However, the struggle for succession to the throne
and civil wars among the claimants to the throne greatly
weakened the institution of kingship. Whosoever succeeded,
either killed, blinded, or imprisoned the other claimants in
order to avert any attempt to challenge his succession.
After an unsuccessful revolt against his father,
Aurangzeb, Prince Akbar escaped to Iran, but his son
Nikosiyar and his children were imprisoned at the fort of
Akbarabad where they remained confined for 40 years.
Nikosiyar was released when there was a revolt against the
Sayyad Brothers, who were known as the king makers, and
placed on the throne in 1719. But he was soon replaced by
another candidate and again sent to prison.
Jahandar Shah (1712-13) became the king after
killing his three brothers and imprisoning their children in
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the fort of Shahjahanabad. On his succession, Farrukhsiyar
(1713-19) executed Jahandar Shah and his brother
Aa`zuddin, and blinded his younger brother to render him
unsuitable for the throne.
When Farrukhsiyar was dethroned by Sayyad
Brothers, it became difficult for them to find a prince who
could be placed on the royal throne. Those princes who
were spared killing or blinding were living isolated lives in
palaces along with women and eunuchs. After much search
they found Rafi ud Darajat (1719). He was taken away from
the palace in such a hurry that he was not even allowed to
change his dress; just a necklace was put around his neck
symbolising his status. As he was brought up in a confined
atmosphere, he developed TB and died after few months of
his succession. The next king was Rafi ud Daulat (1719) who
too died after ruling for a few months. After Nikosiyar
(1719) the next king was Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)
who was released from the fort of Salim Garh after eight
years of imprisonment.
Sayyad
Brothers
developed
a
conflict
with
Muhammad Shah. As a result one of the brothers, Hussain
Ali Khan, was murdered and the other brother, Sayyad
Abdullah, tried to replace Muhammad Shah with some other
prince in order to rule in his name. However, no prince was
ready to play the role of the king. Sons of Jahandar Shah
closed the gates of their palace and did not allow anybody to
approach them. Nikosiyar, who had once been the king, this
time refused to act the same role again. However, after much
difficulty, Rafi Ushshan`s son, Ibrahim, agreed to become the
king. However, he failed and Muhammad Shah continued to
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rule.
On the question of succession, Aurangzeb had fought
against his brothers and eliminated them ruthlessly. The
policy was continued by Bahadur Shah (1707-1712),
Jahandar Shah, and Farrukhsiyar who succeeded to the
throne after bloody wars. After this, civil wars came to an
end and the Mughal nobility became so powerful that they
decided which candidates should succeed to the throne. The
role of Sayyad Brothers is important in this respect. They
first supported Farrukhsiyar and after him three more
rulers came to power with their help. Later on, when
Ruhellas, Marhattas, and the British assumed power, they
played the role of kingmakers.
To get the consent of these powers, royal ladies
intrigued to get their sons nominated for kingship. For
example, two widows of Muhammad Shah offered to pay 10
lakh rupees to Ghulam Qadar Ruhella for his support for
their candidates. Akbar the second (1896-1837), under the
influence of his wife, wanted to nominate Mirza Jahangir as
his successor, while his eldest son Abul Muzaffar was the
claimant to the throne. During the period of Bahadur Shah
Zafar (1837-1858), his favourite wife Zeenat Mahal wanted
her son Jawan Bakht to succeed his father. Meanwhile two
claimants died mysteriously as a result of poisoning. Even
during 1857, she was hopeful that the British might select
her son as the next ruler. The result was that every
candidate was ready to hand over his power, privileges, and
compromise with the selected authorities. The ambitious
candidates of the last Mughal emperor were ready to
abandon the title of emperor and leave the Red Fort and call
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themselves merely prince.
The long rule of the Mughal dynasty degenerated the
royal family. The Mughal princes spent their whole lives in
confinement where they had the company of women and
eunuchs. They were not allowed to have any contact with
the outer world. They neither had proper education nor had
any experience in administration. It deteriorated their
mental capacity. Such was the condition of their psyche that
once, on seeing a naked sword, Jahandar Shah got so
terrified that he hid in a corner. Such is the pathetic and sad
story of the later Mughal rulers.
In history those dynasties which did not have any law
of succession were always involved in bloody conflicts and
the one who ascended the throne either killed or imprisoned
other claimants. This happened in case of Abbasids, the
Ottomans, and the Safavids. In the later period all produced
deranged and sick rulers. The same happened in case of the
Mughals.
Dynasties
survived
in
case
of
monarchy.
In
democracy, the rule of dynasties and their monopoly over
political parties is against the spirit of the age. Are we ready
to learn this lesson from history?
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The Salatin
The term Salatin was used for the Mughal princes
who lived in the Red Fort along with their families. Jahandar
Shah (1712-13) had made them virtual prisoners; he passed
a law that did not allow them to go out of the fort, perhaps in
order to preserve their privileged status in the eyes of the
people.
With the passage of time their number increased, as
Mughal emperors and princes were in the habit of keeping
large numbers of women in their harem. Ahmad Shah
(1748-1754) was known to have a large harem. For months
he would live in their company and not come out to hold
court. Shah Alam (1760-1806) had, in his harem, more than
500 women as wives and mistresses, and had 70 sons. He
was a habitual womaniser and a licentious person. His son,
Akbar Shah, had by the age of 18 already married 18 women.
In 1836, the number of salatin was 795, which by
1848 increased to 2,104. All of them were bound to live in
the fort. Eunuchs were given the task to frequently check
their presence in their quarters. A woman was appointed to
look after the women and children and inform the king
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about their condition. In the evening their houses were
locked from outside and keys were handed over to the incharge of the fort. Any attempt to escape was regarded as a
crime. In spite of these restrictions, some of the princes
escaped and took refuge in independent states where they
were welcomed as royal guests.
As the emperor had limited financial resources, the
families of the princes received only a small allowance. This
kept them in perpetual poverty. To meet their expenses they
turned towards moneylenders. When they could not repay
the loan and interest, cases were filed against them in the
judicial courts. For example, in 1848, Jagat Singh submitted
to the emperor that Mirza Timur had taken a loan of Rs
6,000 which he had not paid back. The emperor ordered the
prince to pay back his loan. Bahadur Shah on May 8, 1848,
wrote a letter to all princes asking them not to take any loan
from moneylenders because, in case of non-payment, they
had to appear before a judge at the court which was an
insult to the royal family.
The allowances of the direct descendents of the
emperor were more than that of the distant ones. The daily
allowance of the princes of lower category was one to five
rupees, but most of the time they would not even get this
meagre amount as the emperor had exhausted his own
funds. When they faced financial crisis, they protested by
wailing and crying in order to make the emperor redress
their grievances. In such a situation, the emperor had to take
loan from moneylenders.
Sometimes they had to take some extreme steps, for
instance on August 8, 1846; Bahadur Shah wrote a letter to
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the British Resident that his monthly allowance should not
be sent directly to the Fort as he had come to know that the
salatin were planning to loot it on its way.
Major Cunningham, who visited the fort, after seeing
the miserable condition of the salatin, observed that "The
salatin quarter consists of an immense high wall so that
nothing can overlook it. Within this are numerous mat huts
in which these wretched objects live. When the gates were
opened there was a rush of miserable, half-naked, starving
beings that surrounded us. Some men apparently eighty
years old were almost in a state of nature, who from earliest
infancy had been shut up; other young men, sons of kings
whose mothers had either died or were not in favour... other
young children who had the space within these walls to look
forward to as their world. The utmost allowed was a few
blankets during the cold weather, distributed as if by the
king, but in fact by a private charity of Seton."
At one stage the East India Company tried to solve the
problems of the salatin and proposed to open a college
within the premises of the fort to educate them in order to
appoint them in the service of the Company. The plan was
dropped on the consideration that if they could not get jobs,
they would create more problems for the Company.
Therefore, it was decided that they should be left
where they were. W. H. Sleeman in Rambles and Reflections
of an Indian Official writes "Better let them shift for
themselves, and quietly sink among the crowd. They could
only become rallying points for the dissatisfaction and
multitude
sources
of
disaffection
everywhere
doing
mischief, and nowhere doing well. Let loose upon society,
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they everywhere disgust people by their insolence and
knavery, against which we are every day required to protect
the people by our interference; ... they will sink by and by
into utter insignificance."
The Revolt of 1847 changed the history of the Mughal
dynasty. Two of the sons of Bahadur Shah were killed by
Hudson. The youngest one, Jawan Bakht, was exiled along
with the emperor. Prince Firuz, another son, took refuge in
Makkah; Prince Fakhruddin was injured in 1857 and spent
the rest of his life as a pauper in the city of Delhi. The last
emperor died in 1852 at Rangoon.
The rest of the salatin left the fort and after
wandering from one place to another finally disappeared in
the crowd.
From time to time some individuals and families
claim to be the descendants of the royal family, but nobody
takes notice of their claim or provide them any privilege or
concession. If at all they belong to the great Mughals, they
have lost all glamour and glory which was associated with
the family. Now, they are simply commoners.
History teaches us the lesson that those who rely on
noble lineage and depend on income from inherited
property for a living end up in poverty and misery.
27
Story of a Mughals
The descendents of the Mughal emperors were
condemned to live in the Red Fort when the Empire was on
the decline and there was no room for them to serve it in
any capacity.
The majority of them accepted their fate and spent
their entire lives within the walls of the fort, isolated from
the rest of the world. However, there were some individuals
who were not satisfied with this boring life and tried to
escape from it and start a new life. To thwart such attempts,
there were a number of checks to keep an eye on their
movements. In case of escape all efforts were made to catch
the adventurer and bring him back to his quarters.
However, those who successfully left the fort were
welcomed by the rulers of independent states as royal
guests and due homage was paid to them. It was considered
a privilege to have a Mughal prince at their court.
One of the princes who dared to leave the Fort and
wandered from place to place was Muhammad Zahiruddin
Ali Bakht Azfari Gurgani who later on wrote his biography,
Waqia`at-i-Azfar, which also contains the important events
28
of the period. He was born in 1760 in the Fort and got his
early education there, married and had children who all
lived in the quarters which were assigned to the salatin.
During the attack of Ghulam Qadir Ruhella in 1788 he
helped Shah Alam in the hope of getting freedom to leave the
Fort. When the emperor refused to allow him to go, he
decided to escape.
There is an interesting account of his escape in 1789.
He conspired with some servants and secretly informed his
brothers about his plan. To avoid daily checks he pretended
to be seriously ill and did not allow anybody to visit him.
One night he slightly blackened his face by rubbing opium,
wore the dress of a water carrier and walked out of the Fort
along with some servants without any suspicion. With the
help of the gujars he travelled and reached the territory of
Jaipur. There he came to know that the Raja had received a
letter informing him of his escape. Soon after, the authorities
closed all the gates of the fort and the city. The Nazir, or incharge of the fort, tried to catch him but in vain.
When he reached Jaipur, he was received with honour
and the Raja observed Mughal etiquette in his presence. He
found Jaipur to be a neat and clean city with wide and
levelled streets and impressive buildings, especially Hawa
Mahal. From Jaipur he went to Jodhpur where he was
welcomed by the Raja. The Raja maintained peace and order
in his state and the trade routes were safe. Hunting was not
allowed. Via Sanbhar, Ajmer, Rampur and Bareilly he
reached Lukhnow. There he found splendid buildings but
the streets and lanes were dirty and uneven.
He stayed in Lukhnow for nearly seven years and was
29
treated well by Nawab Asifud Dowla who patronised the
Mughal princes who came to his court. In 1792, he left the
city with the intention of going to Deccan. On his way he
visited
Benaras,
Sehsaram,
Azimabad,
Murshidabad,
Bardawan, Calcutta, Machchli Patan and finally reached
Madras whose ruler Nawab Umdatul Mulk Wallajah received
him with protocols and fixed a stipend for him. He spent the
rest of his life there and died in 1811.
From his memoirs it appears that he was a keen
observer and expressed his views on different issues freely.
As he stayed as a guest of both the Hindu and Muslim rulers
he found nearly all of them corrupt and involved in luxury,
spending their time enjoying music and dance. The Raja of
Jaipur slept the whole day and spent the night in the
company of women. Asifud Dowla kept himself busy in
merry-making and entertainment. These rulers did not care
about the welfare of their subjects.
On the contrary, when he came in contact with the
British,
he
was
very
much
impressed
by
their
administration. He justifies their rule with the logic that
India was ruled by different nations such as Afghans,
Mughals, Marathas, and now it was the turn of the English. In
his opinion they were superior to other nations and
therefore had a right to rule over India.
He also provides some rare information about the
Mughal era, especially about Ahmad Shah Abdali who in his
second invasion occupied Delhi and forcibly married Hazrat
Mahal, the daughter of Muhammad Shah. He got a large
dowry and took away not only the bride but her mother and
other women to Afghanistan. The princess stayed there for
30
19 years. When Hazrat Mahal died there, her mother
brought her coffin to Delhi for burial.
The memoirs fully reflect the political and social
condition of the ruling classes of India during the eighteenth
century
The lesson we get from history is that common
people need peace and prosperity. If their rulers fail to
deliver it, they welcome the outsiders as their deliverers.
31
Financial Condition of
The Later Mughals
When Shah Alam (1788-1806) came back to Delhi
under the protection of the British, his rule was confined to
the Red Fort where he had to look after the large number of
families of his predecessors.
By this time he had limited resources which were
not enough to support the large number of his dependents,
but as a Mughal emperor he was their guardian and it was
his responsibility to meet their expenses. For example, when
Marathas were in power, the emperor`s grant was Rs 17,000
per month while his total expenses were Rs 45,000.
When Akbar Shah (1806-1837) succeeded to the
throne, there were not enough resources to feed the
members of the royal families. They had to live a life of
poverty and misery.
In 1809, Governor General Wellesley fixed an
allowance of Rs 70,000 per month but even this was not
sufficient to meet the growing demands of the dependents.
At that time the only concern of the emperor was to get
32
sufficient funds for keeping his court and those who were
under his patronage. He had no political or administrative
authority, since the East India Company had taken full
control of the administration. He was the king only in name.
Akbar Shah tried to solve his financial problems and
appointed Khawaja Farid as his wazir to find out other
sources of income to control the financial crisis. The wazir
adopted three methods to generate income. First, he
reduced the allowances of the princes and begmaats or
women of the royal families by 10 per cent.
Secondly, he closed some of the royal factories and
sections of the royal kitchen. Thirdly, gold and copper from
the ceiling of the Hall of Public Audience was taken away
and used for minting coins to pay loans. On this, the people
of Delhi commented that the silver of the ceiling was looted
by Nadir Shah and gold and copper was taken away by
Khawaja Farid. However, it was not a permanent solution. It
provided relief only for the time being.
When Bahadur Shah (1837-1858) ascended the
throne, he, throughout his rule, asked for more funds from
the Company. He was getting Rs 100,000 as a stipend.
Interestingly the Mughal court called it tribute while the
Company named it pension. There is a legal difference in the
two terms tribute is paid to the superior power by the
inferior power, while pension is given to a servant; this legal
difference was the basis on which the Company charged
Bahadur Shah as a traitor.
Financial problems greatly affected the life of the
royal families. As a last resort, the king, his wives, and
princes began to sell their jewellery and household things to
33
meet the expenses. The Red Fort was plundered by the
Marathas, Jats, Euhellas, Nadir Shah, and Ahmad Shah Abdali
who not only took away the accumulated treasury of the
Mughal rulers but also dug the walls and floors of the Fort in
search of buried wealth. Ghulam Qadir Euhella did not even
spare the books of the royal library and sold them in the
markets.
As a result, royal families lived in poverty and
deprivation. Two foreign women who visited the Red Fort
and met the royal family depicted the pathetic condition of
their life. Fanny Parks in Wanderings of a Pilgrim in search
of a Picturesque observed that the part of the palace where
the royal family lived had lost all its past glory. The ceiling
and the floor of the hall presented a melancholy look.
Princess Hidayatun Nisa, instead of awarding a necklace of
costly pearls, put a garland of flowers around her neck, just
to follow the tradition of the great Mughals.
Another woman, Mrs Hassan Ali, a British woman
who was married to a Muslim noble of Lukhnow writes in
Observations of the Mussulmans of India "I was grieved to
be obliged to accept the Queen`s parting present of an
embroidered scarf, because I knew her means are
exceedingly limited compared with the demands upon her
bounty; but I could not refuse that which was intended to do
me honour at the risk of wounding those feelings I so greatly
respected. A small ring of trifling value was placed by the
Queen on my finger, as she remarked, `to remind me of the
giver`."
Great Empires during their glorious days used to
build great monuments in order to show their grandeur and
34
glory.
When the empires declined and the rulers failed to
maintain them because of financial problems, these splendid
buildings started to deteriorate and tell the story of the rise
and fall of the empires. The same happened in case of the
Mughals. Shahjahanabad which was the dream city of
Shahjahan and Delhi which had the palaces, gardens, forts,
and tombs of the past generations, presented sad pictures in
the last days of their rule.
It was observed by many foreign travellers. One of
them was Reginald Heber who, in Narrative Journey through
the upper provinces of India (1824-25), writes about the
city of Delhi "From the gate of Agra to Humayun`s tomb is a
very awful scene of desolation, ruins after ruins, tombs after
tombs, fragments of brick work, freestone granite and
marble scattered everywhere over a soil naturally rocky and
barren, without cultivation, except in one or two small spots,
and without a single tree."
The lesson of history here is that when the time of
decline comes not only poor people but the ruling classes
also suffer humiliation, poverty and misery.
35
Manners and Society
Manners and social etiquettes in any society reflect its
hierarchical structure; that is, how to behave with superiors,
equals and inferiors. These etiquettes not only distinguish
the upper classes from the common people but determine
and maintain the status and position of each class.
If we take a look at the historical background of how
manners originated and established, we would see that two
centres played an important role in their making and
refinement. One was the house of worship, which required
all those who came for worship, irrespective of their social
status, to strictly observe the rules and regulations set to
maintain the sanctity of the place. Therefore, at the places of
worship, in all religions, believers and devotees remained
respectful and sombre; laughing, talking or making any
noise was considered abhorrent and intolerable.
Any violation was condemned by the priests as well
as the society.
The second place was the royal court where courtiers
and audience had to control their body movements in the
presence of the king. They were not allowed to display their
36
feelings and emotions. Hilal al-Sabi in his book Rusum dar
al-Khilafa (Ceremonies of the Capital of Caliphate) portrays
the picture of the Abbasid court. The courtiers were not
allowed to speak without permission. If the Caliph asked
some question, the courtiers replied in such a low voice that
only the Caliph could hear. While speaking, a person was not
supposed to move his body. In the presence of the Caliph,
they were required to stand quietly and not look around.
They were not allowed to make any signs; laughing,
coughing and scratching or making any noise was
prohibited.
Thus, both the places of worships and the royal courts
especially trained the elite classes on how to behave and
observe manners. These two models were adopted by the
aristocracy to follow in their life. For example, in India,
during the Mughal rule, it was the custom that if a person of
lesser status visited a nobleman of higher status he
welcomed him sitting on his seat by moving his head, but if a
nobleman of equal status came to see him he stood up in his
honour and made him sit next to him with friendly gestures.
In case of intimacy, both embraced each other. On his
departure, he would accompany him to his conveyance to
say adieu. It was also customary to rub perfume on his
clothes and offer pan (betel nut) to show his courtesy.
The common people were obliged to pay homage to
their superiors whenever they encountered them. If
somebody came to them for a solution to his problem, it was
required that he explains the problem humbly and quietly
and departs from his presence immediately. It was
considered bad manners to stay and wait for his response
37
unless asked.
For common people the mode of addressing their
superiors was also fixed. When they addressed their
superiors they had to fold their hands which was a sign of
humility, and used proper titles such as `His Excellency`, `His
exalted Highness` and `Protector of the poor`. It was
obligatory to say something in his praise before submitting
one`s application. For writing an application it was required
to address the nobleman with high titles and in the end
request him to solve his problem for which the applicant and
his coming generations would remember his kindness. It
was customary that whenever the palki or carriage of a
nobleman or a high official passed through the market place,
the people should leave the main road and stand on the side
to pay homage.
It shows how social and cultural manners were
manipulated by the elite classes to keep the common people
obedient and submissive and not challenge their status.
When the British came to power, they also fully realised the
importance of these etiquettes and kept them intact.
In our society, as the feudal culture which defended
the social hierarchy is still prevalent, the continuity of social
etiquettes is essential to keep the privileges of the elite
classes.
However, with the democratisation of societies,
corporate culture is replacing the feudal and royal one. For
example, in shops and hotels the staff is trained to be
respectful to every client whether rich or poor. We find that
in democratic societies, manners are no more the monopoly
of
38
upper
classes;
as
a
result
of
education
and
democratisation of institutions all sections of people are
treated honourably. Perhaps, in Pakistan, it will take some
time to challenge the cultural hegemony of the elite classes
but the process of change is going on.
39
The Etiquette of Mughal Court
Mughal court etiquettes, manners, and ceremonies
which were regulated during the early stage of the Mughal
era continued to be observed during the later period.
However, the glory of the court which depended on
extensive political power and unlimited resources of the
empire diminished immensely due to the political weakness
of the emperor and the emptiness of his treasury. Though
the daily routine was religiously followed as it was during
Akbar or Shahjahan's rule, it appeared more of a theatre
than the real court of the great Mughals.
As the Mughal dynasty declined, the Red Fort, which
was the seat of the later Mughals, lost its past glory and
started to decay because emperors had no money to repair
it. The Hall of Public Audience became a deserted and
haunting place. The Hall of Private Audience was the only
place where the emperor held his court. As Nadir Shah took
away the famous Peacock throne, of Saharan, it was replaced
with a replica which was decorated with fake pearls and
diamonds. It was indeed a mockery of the past grandeur.
Though robes of honour, jewellery, weapons, horses and
40
elephants were still awarded to courtiers, it was not in
appreciation of their services but as a result of their flattery
of the emperor. The quality of the robe of honour and other
gifts also deteriorated. The same happened in case of royal
processions. They no longer left an impression of the
emperor's power and wealth; rather they became a cheap
show of decadence.
The position of the Mughal emperor suffered initially
as a result of the Marhatta occupation of Delhi and then due
to the rule of The East India Company. He became a puppet
and his source of income was the stipend, which was
granted to him by these two powers. Though outwardly both
showed respect to him, the real power was in their hands.
In the beginning, the East India Company and its
officers observed the etiquettes of the Mughal court and
whenever they visited the court they performed all the
required rituals to show their obedience. Like other
courtiers, they presented nazar or offering to the emperor,
which traditionally signified loyalty of a person to the higher
authority and in return received the robe of honour in
appreciation of their services. However, as the political
power of the Company increased, its officials started to
avoid paying proper homage to the emperor and sometimes
violated the usual etiquettes in order to show their
independence and arrogance.
The British Resident of Delhi had parallel authority
which had more power than the Emperor. He asserted his
authority by banning the playing of kettledrum which
announced the movement of the Emperor. He refused to
present nazar, which indicated his subordinate position. He
41
told the emperor that he should not be referred to as
farzand-i-Arjumand or 'beloved son', a title which was used
in official correspondence. The word fidvi-i-khass or 'your
devotee' was expunged from the seal of the Governor
General. Lastly, Bahadur Shah Zafar was asked to vacate the
Red Fort. His heir apparent was ready to accept this
condition. The main purpose of the Company, to deprive the
Mughal Emperor from using the Red Fort, was that it was a
symbol of the past glory of the Mughal Empire. By asking the
Emperor to vacate the Fort they wanted to convey a
message to the people of India that they should not look up
to the Fort as a bastion of power and a symbol of loyalty.
During the rule of Akbar, when Warren Hastings,
Governor General of the Company, wanted to visit the court
he asked that he should be offered a chair and exempted
from presenting nazar. The Emperor accepted it but his
mother, after learning of these conditions, reprimanded her
son and told him not to violate the old traditions of royalty.
Hastings cancelled his visit in protest. It is said that he
encouraged Ghaziuddin Haider, the ruler of Awadh to
assume the title of King in order to downgrade the status of
the Mughal Emperor.
The Mughal court changed its policy in 1826 when
Lord Amherst, Governor General, visited the Emperor; he
was offered a chair on the left side of the throne. He did not
present any nazar to the emperor, but accepted gifts which
were awarded to him.
The Mughal court suffered a great shock when in
1857 rebel soldiers stormed the Fort to make Lord Amherst
their leader. They were not accustomed to the centuries old
42
traditions of how to pay homage and how to appear before
the emperor. They violated all etiquettes and rituals and
addressed the Emperor as 'Old Man'.
The year 1857 not only ended the Mughal dynasty,
but also swept away the royal apparatus of the Mughal cour.
43
Decadence of the Mughal Nobility
The medieval society of India was highly polarised
and divided into two classes privileged and the common
people. Those who belonged to the upper classes considered
themselves superior and above the law. The feudal lords,
within their jagirs, had full control over their subject and
punished them on minor crimes or disobedience. They
employed all sorts of terrorising methods to keep their
subjects loyal and obedient, and considered it their right to
torture, imprison or even hang them.
Their subjects were at their mercy and had no voice
to protest against their brutal behaviour. The following
incident shows their callousness towards their subject
Shuja`ud dola, the Nawab Wazir of Awadh was a powerful
noble and had a large number of women in his harem. Once
he kidnapped a beautiful khatri woman, raped her and then
threw her out of the palace. The khatri community protested
against this incident but in vain, as common people had no
voice against the powerful.
The nobility, even in its own circle, committed crimes
against each other. Those who were resourceful remained
44
unpunished. During the rule of Ahmad Shah (1748-1754),
his favourite eunuch, Jawed Khan, became very influential,
which some of the nobles did not like. One of the nobles,
Safdar Jang, one day invited him for dinner and killed him.
The king was annoyed by this act but as he was weak he
failed to take any action.
As the institutions collapsed and the king became
weaker, the Mughal nobility relied on intrigues to
undermine their rivals and strengthen their own position.
They were intolerant of the idea of their rivals getting high
posts and rewards and made attempts to subvert it by all
means. For instance, Sa`adat Khan Burhanul Mulk was a
candidate for the post of Amirul Umara during the period of
Muhammad Shah (1719-1748), but when the post was given
to Nizamul Mulk, he approach Nadir Shah, who was
preparing to go back after making a peace deal with the
Mughal king. Sa`adat Khan told him that the amount of two
crore rupees which he got as a result of peace was not
according to his status, and he, as a Mughal noble, could give
him this humble amount from his treasury. He urged Nadir
Shah to seize the city and plunder the royal treasury. Nadir
Shah, following his advice, occupied Delhi and took away the
centuries old Mughal treasure to Persia.
As the nobility morally became corrupt, their desire
for high sounding titles increased perhaps to hide their
hollowness. The titles ended with Khan, Bahadur, Dola, Jang,
and Mulk. Those nobles who were awarded these titles did
not have the qualities which these titles signified. Those
titled Bahdur (brave) or Jung (warrior) were not capable of
leading armies in the battlefield or fight bravely. Those who
45
had the titles of Amin or A`timad or `trusted one` were ready
to betray their sovereign for their personal benefits.
Interestingly, as the Mughal state was becoming weaker,
titles for nobility were becoming grander and more glorious.
In reality they had lost the meaning and were merely
decorative.
As the performance of the nobles declined, they lost
respect in the society. However, they tried to earn respect by
displaying their power and wealth in public. They took
special care to wear dresses which were made of silk and
expensive material. They wore glittering diamonds in their
turbans to show their richness, and decorated their body
with different ornaments to make it look attractive.
Whenever they went out, they used either elephants or palki
to travel. In front of their procession marched large number
of servants who cleared the way for them, even though these
poor fellows did not get their salaries regularly.
It shows that the nobility was very much conscious of
their status and used all outward signs to impress the
people. However, the opinion of the people was quite
different. They were not impressed either by their titles or
by their wealth, and looked down upon them as immoral,
corrupt, lazy, and characterless people. Jafar Zattali, who
was executed by Farrukhsayar (1713-1719) because of his
sarcastic
verses
which
he
composed
on
Farrukh`s
coronation, criticised not only the king but also the nobility
on their shameful character.
When we compare our times to the past, we find that
our elite classes are behaving in the same manner as the
Mughal nobility of the declining period. They consider
46
themselves above the law, hide their weaknesses by
showing their wealth, and keep the common people away by
adopting VVIP culture, not realising that people have no
respect but contempt for them
Our feudal lords` attitude and behaviour towards
their peasants is similar to that of the medieval period`s
jagirdars; they treat them inhumanly by keeping them in
private jails and torture them on minor offences.
47
Nobility on the Decline
One of the important pillars of the Mughal kingship
was its nobility. As long as the emperor was strong, it served
him with loyalty and sincerity but as the emperors became
weak, it got involved in intrigues and mutual conflicts to
acquire more power and wealth.
They emerged as a powerful factor during the wars of
succession when different claimants to the throne fought
against each other and tried to win the support of nobles.
The nobles, too, took advantage of the situation and
supported the candidateof their choice. After the war, the
winning prince and his supporters took revenge from those
who were on the opposite side; their properties were
confiscated and they were tortured, imprisoned, exiled or
killed.
The result of this was that the coronation of each
successful contender began with bloody scenes. When the
son of Azim-ash Shan (1712), prince Karim, was taken
prisoner after the civil war in which his father was defeated
and killed by Jahandar Shah (1712-1713), he had been
48
hungry and thirsty for three days. He beseeched his captors
to give him some food and water which was blatantly
refused and he was killed immediately.
On the occasion of Farrukhsiyar`s (1713-1719)
succession, he ordered the execution of his opponent noble,
Zulfiqar khan, who had sided against his father. His dead
body was paraded in the city for public display.
The practice of bloody coronations ended when the
emperor became the stipend holder of the East India
Company whose resident had the authority to nominate the
successor.
As the Empire declined there were no new conquests
which required good generals nor was there efficient
administration which had to be supervised by talented men,
therefore the character of the nobility readjusted according
to the new situation. Those nobles who were masters of
flattery and knew how to exploit the emperor`s weaknesses
gained his favour. If he was fond of women, they lured
beautiful girls to the royal palace to please him. If he liked
music or was accustomed to listening to jokes, they gathered
musicians and jesters to entertain him; and if he had a taste
for wine and opium, they provided them in great quantity to
satisfy him.
Their main objective was to please the king by all
means and get grant of jagirs, high titles, and costly gifts and
extract as much money as they could from the royal
treasury. One of the examples was Husamuddin, Shah
Alam`s minister, whose task was to get beautiful women for
him. The man became very influential though he had neither
intelligence nor talent.
49
As most of the state officials were not paid their
salaries regularly, they met their expenses by accepting
bribes. The king`s favourite nobles demanded huge amounts
in exchange of recommendations. The adopted sister of
Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) was famous for taking gifts
and money to recommend the cases of people. In this way
she amassed great wealth.
As the court became a centre of intrigues, the nobles,
fearful that that they might be dislodged in their absence by
their rivals, did not like to leave the court. Instead of going to
their jagirs and supervising them, they started to give them
on contract. The contractors paid an agreed amount to the
nobles and extracted revenue from the peasants forcibly;
they had their private armies and extorted every penny from
the peasants leaving nothing for their survival.
In case of resistance, they tortured and killed the
rebels.
As a result the villages became barren. In some cases
peasants left the villages to avoid the contractors` brutal
methods and took refuge in forests or mountains. This
destroyed agriculture which dried up the sources of
revenue.
However, the nobles accumulated wealth by taking
bribes, accepting gifts, and exploiting peasants. They felt
insecure because they knew that at any time, as a result of
some intrigue, they could lose everything; their property
might be confiscated and their wealth be looted. Therefore,
the general trend among the nobility was to spend it on their
luxury and debauchery, on frequent celebrations, feasts,
dresses, and keeping carriages and elephants. They built
50
grand palaces for themselves and to show their religious
devotion constructed mosques and imambargahs. They
donated large amounts of money to shrines and spent
generously in order to earn a good name and be considered
kind-hearted and merciful. They also built their own tombs
so they could be remembered by posterity.
Thus, the nobility had contradictory qualities and
balanced them with great skill. On the one hand they were
callous and cruel towards their peasants and took away
their produce forcibly. They were corrupt and intriguing and
accumulated wealth by violating all moral values. On the
other hand, they posed as refined and cultured and religious
persons by their acts of generosity and devotion to faith.
It is an art to combine both qualities together. We find
these characteristics in our society as well where religion
and hypocrisy are combined very well.
51
Of Sadists and Savages
Eighteen century India, as the Mughal power
disintegrated, the ruling classes became involved in endless
intrigues in order to secure their own interests. One such
episode was that of Ghulam Qadar Ruhella, which exposed
the degradation and degeneration of the society.
Ghulam Qadar was the son of Zabita Khan who led a
revolt against Shah Alam (1769—1788-1806), the same
emperor who had appointed him mir bakhshi. Shah Alam
personally led the campaign against Zabita Khan who was
defeated in 1777 and fled from the battlefield. His family
was taken prisoner and sent to Agra.
Among the prisoners was the eight-year-old Ghulam
Qadar. The young boy was rumoured to have suffered great
humiliation and sexual abuse at the hands of the emperor
and was rescued only when a peace treaty was signed
between Shah Alam and Zabita Khan. He returned to his
father and inherited his jagir when his father died in 1785.
The Mughal Empire had, by that time, lost all its
power and authority. The Marattha leader, Sindhia, became
Shah Alam's protector but when he left Delhi along with his
52
army, the emperor became defenceless. Ghulam Qadar took
advantage of this and attacked Delhi. Shah Alam pacified him
by bestowing on him his father's old title and a robe of
honour and Qadar left without creating any trouble. But this
was not the end.
By 1788 he had gathered some supporters within the
fort who supplied him shots and gunpowder from the royal
magazine. Mansur Ali Khan, the naxir or in-charge of the
fort, opened the gates, allowing Qadar and his soldiers to
attack in full force and occupy it.
When Shah Alam was brought before him, Qadar
demanded to be told where the royal treasure was hidden.
When Shah Alam refused he was imprisoned and he and his
servants and eunuchs were tortured. Qadar soon received
an offer from the widows of Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)
who promised him Rs10 lakh if he placed Bidar Bakht, the
son of Ahmad Shah (1748-1754), on the throne. He agreed
and declared Bidar Bakht (1788) the new emperor.
However, when the widows refused to pay the
promised money they were also tortured and imprisoned
along with the rest of the royal family
According to Faqir Khairuddun Muhammad, the
author of Ibrat Nama, he called a painter and told him 'paint
my likeness sitting, knife in hand, upon the breast of Shah
Alam, digging out his eyes.' He had already performed this
heinous deed. He amused himself by thinking of ways to
humiliate his prisoners. One day he ordered the princes to
sing and dance; when they refused, he ordered his guards to
cut their noses off. Having no option the poor princes sang
and danced. Then he asked his guards to leave the room and
he put his dagger and sword aside and closed his eyes. After
53
a while he awoke and rebuked the princes. “Can such craven
spirits entertain the idea of reigning? If you had any spirit,
you would have made an end of me with my sword and
dagger.”
He also tried to humiliate the royal family by teasing
the princesses but was prevented from carrying this action
to the extreme by Muyar Singh, his Sikh commander, who
reprimanded Ghulam Qadar on this behaviour. Qadar
reacted angrily and said that the emperor had treated his
father's women badly as well. He added that he intended to
distribute the princesses among his Afghan soldiers so “that
they might have a chance of bringing forth men of courage.”
The ordeal of the royal family finally came to an end
when Gulam Qadar came to know that the Marhatta
commander, Rana Khan, was coming to rescue the emperor.
He left Delhi along with his looted treasure and took some
princes along as hostages. He was chased by Rana Khan and
finally captured. Shah Alam demanded that he be cruelly
punished so the Marhatta commander sent the emperor a
casket containing Qadar's nose, ears, lips and eyeballs as a
gift. Prince Azfari, the author of Waqa'at Azfari was present
on the occasion and witnessed the proceedings in the
company of other princes. Perhaps all of them breathed a
sigh of relief.
In our backward society we find many similarities
when we compare the episode of Ghulam Qadar. Greed to
acquire wealth at all cost, be it by hook or crook, either by
robbery or bribery. Disrespect of women as they are gang
raped, stripped naked and paraded around the villages and
sacrificed in exchange of family disputes. Revenge begets
revenge and promotes callousness and brutality.
54
The King Makers
Frequent wars of succession during the later Mughal
period divided the nobility into a number of factions in
order to protect their interest. When it came to the question
of succession, each group of nobility, after assessing the
candidate`s position, decided to support the one who had
the greatest chance to win. It was a gamble. In case of
success, the supporters got high and lucrative posts and
attractive titles, but in case of defeat they not only lost their
wealth, property and status, but in some cases faced death
on the charges of treason and infidelity. However, in spite of
this danger, this drama continued and the nobility survived
on the weakness of the king who depended on their support
to retain his throne.
Under these circumstances two brothers emerged to
play the role of king makers. They were Hussain Ali Khan
and Abdullah Khan who belonged to the family of sadaat-ibarah whose members were famous for their chivalry and
bravery in the battlefield. Both brothers supported
Farrukhsiyar (1713-1810) against Jahandar Shah (17121713) who became the emperor after a bloody battle in
55
which he killed Farrukhsiyar`s father and brothers. With the
help of the Sayyid brothers Farrukhsiyar defeated Jahandar
Shan in 1711 and executed him to clear his way to become
king.
Farrukhsiyar`s ascension to the throne made the
Sayyid brothers powerful because without their support it
would not have been possible for him to win the battle for
succession. Jahandar Shah`s supporters faced the royal
wrath.
Their palaces and wealth were confiscated and
awarded to the Sayyid brothers. Prominent nobles who lost
their properties included Nusrat Jang whose palace was
awarded to Hussain Ali Khan. The Sayyid brothers
imprisoned I`tiqad Khan and tortured him to reveal the
location of his hidden treasures. The same treatment was
meted out to the sons of Sh`ista Khan. The confiscated
wealth was distributed among the followers of the new king.
However, the honeymoon period was soon over. In
the system of kingship, sharing of power and authority
created doubts and suspicions between shareholders. There
were intrigues and counter intrigues. The Sayyid brothers
were more powerful militarily while the emperor had only
the charisma of his family name. It was a one-sided conflict
and the military power won; one day Farrukhsiyar was
dragged from his harem and imprisoned under inhuman
condition. The servants of the Sayyid brothers not only
insulted the emperor but also slapped and kicked him.
Finally, he was strangulated on the order of the
Sayyid brothers. After the assassination of the emperor the
royal treasury was plundered by the brothers. Abdullah
56
Khan, who was a depraved debauch, took three beautiful
women of the royal harem for himself. This shocked the
population of Delhi but they endured it silently.
There was no dearth of princes who were ready to sit
on the throne; the Sayyid brothers helped two such prices,
Rafiud Darajat (1719) and then his brother Rafiud Dola
(1719), attain the throne. Both died within a short span of
time leaving the throne empty again. Meantime another
prince Nikoser (1719), declared himself the emperor at Agra
but he too was defeated by the brothers. The capture of Agra
fort provided them the opportunity to seize the centuries old
accumulated treasure of the Mughal emperors including the
costly and precious things belonging to Nurjahan and
Mumtaz Mahal.
However the situation started to change when
Roshan Akhtar became the emperor under the title of
Muhaad Shah (1719-1748). By this time a rival faction of
nobility was tired of the Sayyid brothers and their misuse of
power. Thus a conspiracy was hatched and Mir Haider
Kashghari was paid a princely sum of one lakh rupees to kill
Hussain Ali Khan.
As soon as the news of this murder spread there was
panic and confusion in the royal camp. Hussain Ali Khan`s
rivals immediately plundered his treasury; they were
followed by camp followers who took full advantage of the
chaos and looted whatever they got. According to one
historian, within a short span of time there was no trace of
Hussain Ali Khan`s camp. Everything belonging to him was
taken away. Each beggar of the camp collected nearly three
thousand ashrafis and became rich.
57
Abdullah Khan, who was on his way to the Deccan,
received the news of his brother`s death. He immediately
decided to return and take revenge. He wrote to his
maternal uncle Najmuddin Ali Khan, who was in charge of
the princes who were confined at Shahjahanabad, to place
Prince Sultan Ibrahim on the throne in order to legitimise
his action in his name. But the time for king making was
over. Abdullah Khan fought a battle against the royal army
but was defeated and taken prisoner. His treasury was also
confiscated. He spent the rest of his life in prison.
There is a lesson in the history of the Sayyid brothers.
If somebody becomes too ambitious and greedy, the burden
crushes him without any mercy. Secondly, accumulating
wealth at the cost of others results in rivalry which
ultimately leads to the downfall of the person. Thirdly,
wealth cannot save you from the wrath of the people. Once a
powerful man becomes powerless, all his followers and
supporters leave him to face the music alone.
58
The Downfall of Awadh
The breakdown of the Mughal Empire led to the rise
of successive states including Awadh, Hyderabad, and
Murshidabad which emerged as new political entities.
Initially these successive states flourished and prospered
due to the exploitation of the resources of their territories.
However, rulers of these states used these resources not for
the welfare of the common people but on their luxurious life
style. This created a great divide between the elite class and
the common people. Most of the wealth was extracted in the
shape of revenue from peasants who suffered naked
exploitation at the hands of their rulers. The royal dynasty of
Awadh was one such example.
The early rulers of Awadh were known as `Nawab
Wazir` and recognised the Mughal Emperors their sovereign.
Ghaziuddun Hyder was the first who assumed the title of
`Badshah` and gained independence from the Mughals.
The state came under the control of the British after
the battle of Buxer in 1763 when the combined forces of
Shah Alam, Mir Qasin of Bengal, and Shu`jauddola were
defeated. After this, a British Resident supervised the affairs
59
of the state reducing the authority of the Nawab.
Feeling secure internally and externally, the rulers
devoted all their time to luxury and entertainment; Awadh
was a fertile territory and had sufficient financial resources.
The major part of the income was spent on the royal family
and on those who were attached to it as courtiers and
servants. As the number of the royal family increased, more
income was devoted to their expenses.
The ruler kept a large number of women in the
harem. Shuja`uddola had nearly two thousand women from
whom he had 25 sons and 22 daughters. Asafuddola had five
hundred women and produced 30 boys and 23 girls. Sa`adat
Ali Khan had 19 boys and five girls. Wajid Ali Shah, the last
ruler, had 40 boys and 34 girls. One can imagine how the
growing size of the royal family became a heavy burden on
the economy as all of them got hefty amounts of money as
allowance from the state. Getting money without doing
anything made the royal family and its members lazy,
worthless and corrupt; most of them spent their time in the
company of women or eunuchs and in the pursuit of useless
hobbies and games.
As a result the values of society also changed. The
poor, seeking to make some money willingly offered their
daughters and sisters as mistresses to the rulers and the
members of the royal family. It was estimated that three per
cent of the income of the state was spent on women.
The other expenses were marriage ceremonies of the
members of the royal family. Forty nine lakhs were spent on
Shuja`uddola`s wedding ceremonies. Asafuddola`s marriage
cost the exchequer 34 lakhs and Wazir Ali`s marriage 30
60
lakhs. Asafuddola spent 40 lakhs on the festivities of Holi
and Basant. When Ghaziuddin Hyder assumed the royal title,
he spent 200,000 on his coronation. Nasiruddin Hyder
celebrated several festivals and solemnised many marriages
all of which cost the treasury the entire wealth accumulated
by his predecessors. It was estimated that his monthly
expenditure was 1,000, 000 rupees.
As a result of these expenses the income of the state
could not meet the growing demands of the ruling classes;
consequently, the officials imposed new taxes on the
common man. The economic chasm between the rich and
the poor thus became wider and discrimination weakened
the society of Awadh, so when the British decided to seize
the state there was nobody to defend it. Wajid Ali Shah
meekly surrendered to the British and accepted exile.
The causes for the downfall of the Awadh state were
the creation of a parasite class which did not contribute
anything to the economy but consumed its resources
Secondly, there were many candidates for succession and
they were ready to give great concessions to the British in
exchange for their support. After Shuja`uddola, on the
occasion of every succession, the East India Company got
concession after concession. On the succession of Sa`adat Ali
Khan, it got half of the state of Awadh under its control. The
British Resident became the virtual ruler.
Realising the worthlessness of its rulers, it was
decided to incorporate it into the British territory.
History tells us that when a ruling family becomes a
financial burden on the society, it causes lack of
development and creates unrest among the people. Also,
61
whenever political candidates attempt to succeed with the
help of external powers, they give major concessions to it in
exchange, at the cost of the country`s interest. If any
government spends more than its income it meets the
expenses
by
taking
loans
instead
of
reducing
its
unproductive expenses, consequently this results in the
imposition of more taxes on the people which leads to a
financial crisis and the breakdown of the social fabric of the
society.
62
The Basis of Feudal Culture
There are many varieties of culture, with each variety
fulfilling the demands of a specific class or a section of the
society. The feudal culture is created and develops in a
society which is dominated by the landed class, and serves
its interests. The other classes become subservient under its
shadow.
When Muslim conquerors occupied India and
acquired the resources of the country, they spent these
resources to recruit more soldiers and get more weapons to
expand their territories, the rich resources of the Ganges
Yamuna Rivers helped them to finance the costly
expeditions and conquer more kingdoms to become an
empire. In the early phase the majority of them spent most
of their time in wars and expeditions; they had no time for
leisure or to patronise cultural activities.
Culture
flourished
when
they
had
politically
consolidated their position and controlled the resources of
the country. However, an important change had taken place
in the attitude of the ruling classes. They started to rely on
their assistants and servants and preferred to stay at their
63
palaces and spent more time in merry-making. As the
Mughal Empire declined slowly, the nobility adopted a more
glamorous lifestyle and alienated itself from the common
people.
The next important development occurred when the
East India Company overpowered the Mughals and the
rulers of small states and assumed political power to rule
over the country. The Company either awarded the nobility
and the ruling family stipends or pension to live comfortably
or allowed the income of the states to be used by the rulers
as they liked. This relieved the ruling classes from the
responsibility of state affairs and gave them enough time to
use their wealth in cultural activities. They elaborately
celebrated different festivals, engaged themselves in games,
and hobbies which completely changed their routine of daily
life. However, they neither spent their wealth and time for
advancement of knowledge nor for promoting industry.
Their main concern was how to assert their
superiority over other classes, and this was done not on the
basis of their knowledge or progress, but on being a member
of a noble family and on having inherited property and
wealth. On these bases they claimed to be the guardians of
cultural traditions and institutions. Their argument was that
they had no need to spend their time in acquiring knowledge
or any art when they could employ scholars or artists in
their service. They did it practically and acquired the
services of poets, musicians, wrestlers, artists and dancers.
That`s why, the literature, art and architecture which was
produced during this time was to fulfil the demands of the
nobility, and not of the society.
64
When they celebrated any ceremony, they tried their
best to make it memorable by displaying their wealth and
trying to supersede others. In such a society, there was no
respect for scholars and artists; the status of an individual
was determined by his wealth which was not acquired by
working hard but was inherited from the family. Such
wealth had no value to them and, therefore, they spent it on
building palaces and holding feasts and festivals. From time
to time they distributed charity among the poor. It was
against their tradition to live a life of simplicity because
there was competition to show their status to the society.
Therefore, the important characteristic of this culture
was to make the life of nobles comfortable and luxurious.
They employed a large number of servants who served them
obediently. There were cooks who cooked delicious food for
them and their family and friends, tailors who prepared
expensive dresses for them, poets and musicians who
entertained them and artists who painted their portraits and
decorated their palaces by their works of arts. The nobles
kept away from any manual work. It was regarded as
humiliating and below their dignity. Everything was done by
servants. To satisfy their sexual desires, they not only kept
large harems but also patronised courtesans and visited
them frequently.
A system of etiquette was evolved to distinguish
nobles from other classes. Whenever they had to go
anywhere they never walked but always used some form of
conveyance like carriage, palki, or rode on horses or
elephants. A large number of servants accompanied them in
order to show their status.
65
This culture had a deep impact on the psyche of the
people. The intelligent and capable people, instead of
engaging in some creative contribution, spent their intellect
on how to arrange interesting cock fights, how to cook
delicious food, and how to make their patron happy. Those
who depended on the nobles and their generosity developed
a fine art of flattery. That was the culture that we find
flourishing during the later Mughal period.
Our present society fully inherited these feudal values
and customs and is faithfully adhering to them at the cost of
development and progress of the society.
66
The Glamour of Feudal Culture
During the later Mughal period, the feudal culture
was glamorised with celebrations of a large number of
ceremonies which began from the birth of a child and ended
at the death of a person. There were altogether nearly 30
occasions which were solemnised elaborately. Every
celebration was followed by a feast in which different kinds
of dishes were served to the guests. However, the most
memorable occasion was the wedding ceremony which
became a symbol of status and an occasion to display all
possible glory and magnificence.
Zahir Dehlavi in his book Dastan-i-Ghadr giving
details of the wedding of Mirza Jawan Bakht, the favourite
son of Bahadar Shah describes how different sections of the
society were entertained by beautiful dancing girls who
were invited from different parts of the country. According
to him there were separate parties for the princes, courtiers,
and common people. During the celebration, the courtiers,
servants of the king, and soldiers of the royal army were
regularly served different dishes from the royal kitchen.
The same tradition was followed by the rulers of
67
Awadh who spent large amounts on wedding ceremonies of
the members of the royal family. Abdul Halim Sharar in Last
Phase of Oriental Culture describing the wedding ceremony
of Wazir Ali, the adopted son of Asaf Ud Daula, writes that
the wedding procession included 1,200 elephants and the
dress of the bridegroom was decorated with diamonds
worth Rs20 lakh. For entertainment two huge tents were
erected to accommodate the guests, costing Rs19 lakh.
Najmul Ghani in the History of Awadh writes that so much
money was spent on fireworks and food items that there
occurred a scarcity in the market and everything became
costly for the common people.
The courtiers followed this tradition and spent
thousands of rupees on wedding ceremonies. When there
were no young boys and girls for marriage, they arranged
weddings of dolls and their pet animals. One of Asaf Ud
Daula`s courtier, Hassan Raza Khan, celebrated the wedding
of his elephant Dal Badal to a she elephant known as Barkni.
The
wedding
procession
included
1,200
elephants.
Thousands of rupees were spent on this wedding just for the
sake of pleasure.
Besides these ceremonies, all religious and cultural
festivals were celebrated with enthusiasm. An interesting
aspect of these festivals was that each festival had a special
dish associated with it. For example, for the first ten days of
the month of Muharram there were different kinds of
celebrations, and on each day a different dish was prepared.
In Lukhnavi culture, Muharam ceremonies became very
elaborate and mourning passions were expressed in poetry
and sermons.
68
To pass the time, games were the best source of
entertainment. Besides popular games, new games were
also invented to keep the aristrocats busy. Kite flying, cock
fighting and pigeon flying were very popular. In the evening
they held poetry or story telling or music sessions. Famous
dancing and singing girls were invited to display their
professional excellence in the gathering.
A significant aspect of the feudal culture was
preparation of food. Aromatic and delicious dishes were
cooked and experienced cooks invented new dishes to get
the favour of their master as well as fame for themselves.
The most important part of a household was the kitchen; in
fact, it was the status symbol of the feudal class. They
employed the best cooks to prepare new kinds of dishes and
paid them well. The expenses of the kitchen were very high;
for instance, the daily expenses of Asaf Ud Daula`s kitchen
were Rs 22,000. To show the inventiveness of their cooks
they frequently invited friends and presented before them
the innovative food. When a courtier invited the ruler, he
made special preparation for him; for example, when Asaf
Ud Daula was invited by his courtier, Iqbal Ud Daula, he
spent Rs 125,000 only on the construction of a platform.
Each guest was presented with trays full of cash and fruits.
Although they tried to spend their time in celebrating
festivals and games, even then they felt hollowness in their
lives. A significant aspect of this culture was that they were
consumers and not contributors. As consumers, they did not
have any intellectual satisfaction and depended on others
for everything. This dependency dried up their energy and
talents, and they merely became a burden on society.
69
Although Sharar glamorised the feudal culture of Lukhnov,
one can trace its decadence which ended with its downfall.
The same theory can be applied to our feudal lords
who have inherited property and wealth without any work.
They depend on the labour of others, and consume what
others produce. The lesson of history is that the feudal
culture devoured the later Mughal nobility and left no trace
of their existence. Perhaps the same fate is awaiting our
feudal lords.
70
The State of a Mughal Army
During the early period of the Mughal Empire, the
institution of army was based on a strong foundation. It not
only contributed to the consolidation of the Mughals as
powerful rulers, but played an active role in expanding the
Empire and crushing all rebellions against it. However, with
the decline of the Empire, the army also declined along with
other institutions of the state.
Consequently, in the absence of discipline and an
efficient army, the Mughal rulers failed to suppress the
rebellions which challenged their authority. Theyt also failed
to collect the revenue which was the main source of their
income, and to maintain law and order in the Empire. When
the Marathas, Ruhellas, Sikhs and Jats emerged as powerful
challengers, the Mughal army found itself incapable of
checking their growing power. When Nadir Shah and Ahmad
Shah Abdali invaded, the army was not in a position to
defend the empire and succumbed to the invaders.
As the imperial authority collapsed and insecurity
gripped every section of the society, the feudal lords, rulers
of small states, and influential nobles found themselves in a
71
situation where their wealth and property was in danger.
Wars of succession and the rise of some regional powers
was a threat to them. Therefore, each noble began to keep
his own army for his own security. To meet the expenses of
the army, they plundered the neighbouring territories and
forcibly extorted money from the peasantry. This created a
war-like situation in the whole country; those who had
powerful bands of army, seized and looted the resources and
wealth of the weaker ones.
The war-like situation created a demand for soldiers
which was fulfilled by the poor and unemployed people who
were ready to fight against anyone for small amount of
money or in the hope of war booty. There were military
adventurers who had mercenary soldiers under their
control and were ready to offer their services to the higher
bidder to fight on his side.
For the recruitment of soldiers there was no
discrimination on the basis of religion, ethnic group, or
caste. A Muslim noble employed Hindu soldiers in his army
and a Hindu noble accepted Muslim soldiers without any
prejudice. In each private army, there were different units
which were identified by their caste or tribe such as Jats,
Rathor, and Rajputs. However, a majority of these
mercenaries were Muslims.
As there was no mess in the army the soldiers had to
cook their own food. Due to caste consciousness the soldiers
did not like to share their food with their fellows. Wherever
the army went, a small bazaar accompanied it to fulfil the
needs of the soldiers. A number of other elements also
accompanied the army, such as musicians, dancers, fortune72
tellers, quacks, beggars, thieves, and sadhus, creating a
chaotic situation in the camp. It was just like a moving city.
When the army was on the move, the chief or the
nobles and other important leaders of the army were
accompanied by their families and a lot of bag and baggage;
a large number of servants such as cooks, coolies, tailors,
and bodyguards also accompanied them.
The army recruits had to bring their own horse and
weapons. There was no uniform and each soldier dressed
according to his choice. If a soldier lost his horse during the
war, he was dismissed from the services; therefore, he was
more attentive towards saving his horse than the fight. If he
found that his horse was in danger he preferred to flee to
save his horse.
Soldiers liked to join the service of those leaders who
were known for being victorious because this provided them
chances of a share in the war booty. It also happened that if
the soldiers were dismissed from the service, they generally
looted the property of their master in revenge.
As there was no job security and no discipline in the
army, soldiers left the army whenever they liked. Norms like
loyalty were no longer valid; hence the soldiers did not feel
the need to stay in the service of one ruler or noble. If they
were offered attractive terms by any other noble, they
joined him without any hesitation. It happened that one day
they fought with the army of one leader, and the next day
they joined his opponent. As the economic condition of the
common people was miserable, there was no dearth of
soldiers for any noble or ruler.
73
Soldiering On
It was the common practice among the nobles of the
later Mughals to employ a large number of soldiers for their
security and status, although they had limited resources and
was not in a position to pay them regularly. Even those
nobles who had sufficient resources did not pay the soldiers
on time and always kept their dues. It was said that the
nobles feared that in case of full payment the soldiers might
leave their service and join some other noble. If some
soldiers left the service due to non-payment there were a
number of unemployed people who were ready to take their
place.
Thus, it became an accepted tradition in India to not
pay the soldiers their dues for months. Nizamul Mulk
Asafjah, the founder of the Deccan dynasty, who was famous
for his organisational skills, once, thanked God that from the
time of his rule to the last days of his life he did not withhold
the payment of his soldiers for more than three months.
The result of non-payment of salary was that from
time to time soldiers broke out into riots and kept their
master imprisoned till he paid their arrears. Sometimes the
74
employer was forced to sit on hot cannon and was released
only when he promised to pay them immediately. During the
time of Ahmad Shah (1748-1760) soldiers, in desperation,
started to break into the houses of the nobles and take away
their precious things and sell them in the markets in order
to meet their daily expenses. It created such a fear among
the nobility of Delhi that they gave up keeping valuable
things in their houses. They started to eat in clay utensils to
avoid the attention of the soldiers.
The soldiers also adopted a method of protest known
as dharna or sit-in. They besieged the house or tent of the
leaders of the army and did not allow any food or drink to
pass inside. The interesting aspect was that those soldiers
who were involved in the sit-in also did not eat or drink
anything until the dharna lasted. Other troopers also did not
fight against their comrades. The siege continued until the
noble either promised to pay or paid on the spot.
Another method was to humiliate and insult the
nobles who made excuses for non-payment. For instance,
the soldiers of Mughal noble, Javed Khan, who refused to pay
his soldiers, one day attacked him and tore his dress. When
the king came to know about this, he sold the jewellery of his
three wives and paid the dues of the soldiers. Similarly, in
1755, on refusal of payment, the soldiers of the Mughal
wazir, Imadul Mulk, attacked his residence, took him out in a
state of semi-nakedness and profusely abused him and
dragged him in the streets of Panipat.
The soldiers were taken care of by their leaders when
either there was prospect of some war or fear of some
invasion. On these occasions they were not only paid all
75
their dues but also promised some extra benefits.
The soldiers faced serious crisis when their leader
died or was killed accidentally or was demoted by the king
and lost royal favour or his wealth and property was
confiscated. Under these circumstances it became difficult to
get their dues. In such a situation, there were always riots
and sometimes the soldiers did not allow the dead noble to
be buried unless his heirs paid them. When the governor of
Punjab, Moinul Mulk, who was popularly known as Mir
Mannu, died owing his soldiers four or five months` salary,
the soldiers refused to allow his body to be buried. His wife
Mughlani Begam finally paid them Rs3 lakh from her
treasury. Sometimes, having no alternative, the soldiers
plundered the property of their employer.
It was customary to dismiss the soldiers from service
in order to avoid payment. In this case the soldiers lost all
hopes of getting their dues or any compensation. If these
soldiers rebelled, other troops were engaged to crush their
rebellion. The dismissed soldiers then turned towards some
other noble in the hope of employment. For example, when
Asaf ud Daula, the ruler of Awaadh, dismissed his soldiers
they sought the employment of another Mughal noble, Najaf
Khan.
Such was the situation of unemployment that
sometimes they agreed to take up the job on the promise of
getting only food for their living. When Badsahh Begam, of
Awadh, recruited soldiers she promised to give only food to
them. Even this attracted eight thousand unemployed to
work for her.
Asaf ud Daula, who was famous for his generosity,
76
became angry when the soldiers demanded payment and
dismissed them forthwith. It was also a practice that instead
of 12 months, the soldiers got only eight months` salary.
Sometimes instead of cash payment they were paid in terms
of used clothes or utensils of copper. The lesson of history is
that at present while our soldiers are not in such a condition
our civilians are largely unemployed, facing the same
problem of how to survive.
77
The Looting Soldiers
Although the soldiers of the later Mughal period did
not get their salary regularly, they had the opportunity to get
war booty in case of war. However, it was not always certain
that they would get a share in the plunder as their leaders
were eager to usurp everything. In some cases when they
were defeated they looted their own camp before it was
taken over by the enemy.
When Shuja`ud Dola was defeated in the battle of
Buxer in 1764, his own soldiers looted his camp and then
slipped away from the battlefield. Another example was of
Hussain Ali Khan, the king maker; when he was murdered in
the camp of Muhammad Shah (1719-1748), his bag and
baggage and property was immediately plundered by the
soldiers and within a short span of time his camp was totally
barren as there was nothing left. Such was the expertise of
the Indian soldiers.
Sometimes, before setting off on a venture, soldiers
were assured that after the victory they could take all the
war booty without sharing with the leaders. Sometimes it
was
78
declared
that
except
elephants,
cannons,
and
kettledrums everything would be for the soldiers. In the
battlefield, the leader of the defeated army became a target
for the soldiers because of his costly dress and weapons. He
was immediately killed and his personal belongings were
taken way.
After victory, soldiers were allowed to plunder the
cities. On these occasions no mercy was shown to the
common people. Soldiers captured women and children and
killed the men folk. They tortured people to make them
surrender their hidden treasures. It was a common practice
that whenever the army marched the soldiers looted the
villages they passed through and carried off the farmers`
cattle and produce by force. Villagers, on hearing the
advance of an army, generally fled to forests or mountains in
order to save their honour and life and came back when all
was over.
This created hostility between peasants and soldiers
and when soldiers fled from the battlefield after defeat they
were harassed and looted by peasants. This happened in the
case of the third battle of Panipat; when Marhatta soldiers
escaped after their defeat they were deprived of their horses
and belongings by villagers. Mir Taqi Mir in his
autobiography portrays their dismal condition - how these
soldiers wandered around helplessly. Sometimes, as a result
of looting, victory changed into defeat. The defeated army
took advantage of the fact that the victors were distracted by
their plundering; they seized the chance, attacked and
defeated them.
When big and heavily populated cities were captured
they were looted systematically. Moneylenders (sahukars),
businessmen, and nobles were forced to pay heavily. For
79
example, when Jaswantrao Hulker, the Marhatta leader,
captured the city of Ujjain, he allotted each neighbourhood
to a contractor to get as much wealth as possible. When
Najibabad was captured after the defeat of Zabita Khan, the
royal army not only dug up the fort to find hidden treasure
but even took away the clothes worn by the servants. They
also took women as war booty. In some cases a city escaped
by paying ransom money to invaders.
One redeeming characteristic of the army was that
soldiers were loyal to their employer. If the leader fled or
was killed in the battlefield, the soldiers immediately
stopped fighting and left the scene to save their own life.
They were loyal to a person because there was no institution
which guaranteed their job. The state and its institutions did
not provide them any security of service.
Therefore, when they wanted employment they were
not concerned by their employer`s religion, caste, or race.
The Rajputs, Jats, Mughals, Ruhellas, Marhattas, Sikhs, and
Pathans fought together in the service of either Hindu or
Muslim noble or ruler. They were united on the basis of
loyalty to their leader. One such examples is of Ibrahim
Gardi, who first joined the French, then worked for the
Nizam of Deccan and from there he became in charge of
Marhatta`s topkhana. In the third battle of Panipat, 1662, he
fought on behalf of the Marhattas and was severely
wounded. He was taken prisoner and died due to his
injuries.
As far as looting and plundering are concerned we
have inherited it from the past and have invented new
methods and tactics to refine it. Neither in the past nor in
the present is it considered a crime against society.
80
Deadlier than the Male
When the Mughal Empire declined and its state
institutions collapsed, it provided opportunists a chance to
play an active role in the political and social affairs and
assert their authority without any challenge. One such
character was Begam Sumru (1753 - 1836). Originally called
Zebunnissa, she was a courtesan hailing from a Kashmiri
family who became the mistress of and later married a
German military adventurer, Walter Rheinhardt Sumru.
Sumru was a notorious fellow who served the East
India Company and a number of Indian chieftains and ended
up in the service of Najibud-dola, a Mughal noble who
awarded him the jagir of Sardhana, near Meerut.
When Sumru died in 1778, Zebunnissa, now known
as Begam Sumru, not only inherited his jagir but also his
mercenary army which consisted of an illiterate and
uncouth collection of soldiers of all races English, Germans,
Swiss, French, Portuguese, and Armenians. It was a
Herculean task to control this motley crew but the Begam
did it.
Three years after the death of her husband she
81
converted to Christianity along with her stepson. Realising
that it was difficult for her to maintain discipline in the
army, she married a French officer, Le Vassoult. Her army
did not like this marriage and in reaction they revolted
against her and invited her stepson, Zafaryab, to succeed
her.
The Begam and her husband fled for their lives, with
the army in hot pursuit. Preferring death to capture they
attempted suicide but the Begam survived. She was brought
back to Sardhana where the soldiers kep her chained to a
cannon for seven days without food or water. However,
realising that in case of her death, the jagir would be taken
back by the emperor and they would be unemployed, they
released her and a contract was signed in which they
promised to obey her.
Assuming full power, she expanded her army and
worked to adjust her position according to the changing
political situation of India. She kept herself neutral during
the Marhatta and British conflict. However, when the East
India Company defeated the Marhattas and occupied Delhi,
she decided to side with the British. In 1803 she went to
meet Lord Lake who conquered Delhi. Lake was extremely
drunk and he took her in his arms and kissed her. This
behaviour annoyed her companions but she saved the
situation by saying, `See, how a padre welcomes his
daughter.’ The British confirmed her jagir for life which
secured her position in the new administration.
Under these circumstances, she changed her lifestyle.
She abandoned the veil and became actively involved in the
administration of her jagirs. She used to dine with her
82
European officers and held feasts at which only Europeans
were invited; senior ranking officials such as the governor
general, commander-in-chief, etc. enjoyed her hospitality.
She presided over the dining table and the best wines
from France and Spain were served to the guests.
She maintained strict discipline and never tolerated
any disobedience. She blew up defaulters by tying them to
the cannon`s mouth. Flogging was common punishment.
When two slave girls fled with their lovers she sent the
soldiers to catch them and bring them back. First she had
them flogged; when they became unconscious, she had them
buried alive. She herself guarded the burial place the whole
night lest somebody rescue them.
She treated her peasants brutally and took away their
entire produce leaving a bare minimum for their survival.
Peasants were forced to work in the presence of soldiers to
make sure they were not slacking. After her death, one of the
officers of Agra Revenue Board reported that she extracted
more from her peasants than the British government.
In the last days of her life she donated part of this
wealth to different religious institutions 50,000 pounds
were given to the Pope, 50,000 to the Archbishop of
Canterbury, 100,000 to the Bishop of Calcutta, and 50,000 to
the Catholic Mission of India. She also built churches at
Sardhana and Meerut. When she died in 1836 she left
600,000 pounds which was distributed among her heirs. She
was buried in the church which she built at Sardhana. Her
statue is surrounded by the stone figures of her civilian and
military officers with an inscription which details her
achievements.
83
Her career fully reflects the declining values of the
eighteenth century when brutal force was used to control
the people who, if they revolted, were crushed with an iron
hand. Jagirdars had full control over their subjects to punish
them according to their whims. They extracted money from
the poor and gave it in the name of God to show their piety.
By showing generosity to religious institutions they gained a
reputation for being kind hearted and merciful. People
forgot their crimes and remembered their so called
achievements.
It is also interesting that the marriage of Muslim
women to Christians was not regarded as taboo.
Even conversion was, by and large, acceptable.
Though the political situation was chaotic, there was
religious tolerance in the Indian society.
84
The Pindaris
Due to the political, social, and economic chaos in
19th century India there emerged a gang of robbers known
as the Pindaris which included people who were victims of
money lenders, feudal lords and government officials,
peasants who were deprived of their land, unemployed
youth who had no place to earn their livelihood and all kinds
of poverty stricken people.
In the beginning they were free loaders in the army of
the Marhattas and marched in the rearguard as non
combatants. However, they shared in the war booty and
when the war was over they returned to their homes and
engaged in cultivation of their fields. The structure of the
Pindaris changed when the East India Company extended its
hegemony and as a result of it the solders that were in the
service of the Indian rulers became unemployed. They
joined this gang in order to earn their livelihood through
loot and plunder.
As people of every caste and creed joined the gang it
became multi-religious and multi-cultured in its character.
Moreover, they no longer remained under the authority of
85
any state or ruler and organised themselves under their own
leadership and settled in those areas which were safe for
their activities.
It was the custom of the Pindaris to launch their
campaign of plunder during the Dasehra festival as this
festival was traditionally considered to be a good omen by
thugs and bandits all across India, and they shared their
booty with the deity in gratitude. The main areas of their
looting activities were Mewar, Marwar, Malwa and
Rajputana. When these territories were exhausted as a
result
of
plunder,
they
turned
their
attention
to
Maharashtara. Before launching a campaign they selected a
leader who was well acquainted with the geography of the
area. They kept their movements in complete secrecy. At one
point they divided into different parties and again gathered
on the same spot after completing their mission.
They travelled in groups of two or three thousand,
covering nearly 40 km every day as they carried nothing but
a bit of bread for food and grass for their horses. Their
favourite weapon was an 18 foot long spear and every 15th
person had a gun. It was said that their attack was so sudden
that people did not have time to defend themselves. If,
however, they found that the situation was not favourable,
they rapidly fled from the scene. As their main motive was to
plunder, they were not ready to die fighting. Therefore, they
tried not to fight any battle and raided those places where
there was no army to defeat. They chose routes where they
were in no danger of being attacked by any force.
The Pindaris took those things which were valuable
and light to carry and burnt the rest. As soon as they entered
86
the targeted area, they forced the inhabitants to provide
them food and take care of their horses. They were
merciless in their treatment of their victims. When they got
their hands on a wealthy person they tortured him by
adopting different painful methods until he gave them all his
wealth. Sometimes they killed the men and took away
women and children as war booty.
When they returned to their settlement after a
successful campaign, they deposited the plunder with their
leader for distribution. The leader kept a quarter of the
booty for himself, usually choosing the most valuable and
precious items. As each campaign was financed by a loan
from a trader, this was also paid off from the booty. Then
there was the distribution and every Pindari got his share.
Each one then put his share for sale in the market which
became a sort of festival and people from surrounding areas
came shopping. The market remained open until all things
were sold. After that, they started preparation for the next
adventure.
In the beginning the Pindaris did not attack
territories which were under the East India Company. But in
1808, 1809 and 1812 they raided the British territories as
well. This alarmed the British government which realised
that if the Pindaris were not crushed and law and order not
maintained, it would lose its credibility in the eyes of the
Indians. Thus it began to collect information about Pindaris,
their leaders, their activities and their settlements.
The British finally declared war against the Pindaris
in 1817 who were routed almost at once as they were not
accustomed to regular warfare. One by one their leaders laid
87
down their arms; some of them compromised but some
refused and died either in prison or in clashes. This ended
the dreadful reign of terror and British government restored
peace to its territories.
Today we have modern Pindaris in our society who
plunder the resources of the state and society without any
punishment. Our government is not bothered; in fact, it
sometime legalises the acts of robbery. As a result,s the
Pindaris have resurrected in a new form to target us.
88
Rise of Military Adventurers
One man who earned great fame as a military
adventurer in the late 18th and 19th century India was Amir
Khan who later on became the nawab of Tonk. This was a
time when the rulers of all the small states were engaged in
a grim tug-of-war, trying to get the maximum share from the
disintegrating Mughal Empire.
This political situation provided an opportunity to
those individuals who had the capacity and resources to
gather soldiers and offer their services to anyone who was
ready to pay them well. Khan was one of those who fully
exploited this situation to make a successful career.
His family migrated from Bumber and settled in
Sambhal. As a young man, his ambition was to become a
soldier which was a noble profession for Pathan settlers. His
career started when he collected ten soldiers and left home
in search of a job. In the beginning he served some
zamiindars or feudal lords, then joined the army of an officer
of Peshwa, the Marhatta leader. At that time the salary of a
soldier was between three to four rupees. Khan, as leader,
got between ten to fifteen rupees per month.
89
In 1794, he got an opportunity when, after the death
of the ruler of Bhopal different claimants to his succession
were recruiting soldiers to assert their claim. He joined
Hayat Muhammad Khan along with 60 horsemen and 60
foot soldiers. After that he went to Raghgarh with one
thousand soldiers and fought against Madhoji Sindhia, the
Marhatta chief. His performance in the battlefield was so
good that the Raja gifted him a palki in recognition of his
bravery and courage. As a result his reputation spread
throughout North India and a large number of Pathans came
to join his army. He proved himself an efficient leader.
At this juncture, he met with Jaswant Rao Holker, the
Marhatta leader, who, after the death of his father, was
fighting against his brother for succession and was in need
of military assistance. Khan met him in 1798 and offered
1,500 soldiers for his army. Both leaders vowed to cooperate
with each other and share equally from the war booty.
Holker had great respect for Khan and always
addressed him as bhai sahib.
Amir Khan`s first encounter while fighting in support
of Holkar was with a European military adventurer
Dudrence who was in the service of Holkar`s brother. The
first thing Khan did was to offer more salary to Dudrence`s
soldiers and persuaded them to join him. Secondly, to
inspire his soldiers, he vowed not to wear his pagri (turban)
till Dudrence was defeated.
Dudrence was in trouble as his soldiers started
deserting him and he was not in a position to fight the battle.
Therefore he offered a peace deal to Khan. Though
Holkar suggested that Khan invite Dudrence to his camp and
90
kill him, Khan refused and went to Dudrence`s camp for
negotiations where he was received with full honours and
respect.
Dudrence offered his own turban and requested him
to break his vow by wearing it. He also offered his sword to
Khan as an indication of his surrender. Khan brought him to
Holkar`s camp where Dudrence gave all his treasure,
jewellery and bag and baggage to Holkar. This incident
greatly enhanced Khan`s reputation and he became a very
influential military leader.
Amir Khan remained with Holkar; he fought against
his Marhatta rivals and also defeated East India Company`s
forces under Colonel Messon. Even after Holkar`s death he
supported his family rule over Indor state. Holkar`s
friendship was a crucial factor in increasing Khan`s military
power. With their combined forces they plundered Central
India, Rajputana, and the Deccan. Their modus operandi,
when they wanted to plunder any city, was that first they
besieged it and, after assessing its wealth, asked for a
ransom. If the required money was paid, they advanced to
loot another city.
If the inhabitants of the city resisted and were
consequently defeated then it was systematically plundered.
Traders and moneylenders were their primary targets; they
were tortured and forced to hand over their hidden wealth.
For example in 1799, Khan looted Sironj and Sagar. One of
his servants who witnessed the whole procedure narrated
that the entire city was completely devastated. Everything
was taken away and the natives were left in a miserable
condition. Soldiers searched all wells and water tanks where
91
people hid their wealth temporarily, realising the danger of
invaders. When soldiers captured anybody they assessed his
social status by examining his hands. If they found them to
be soft, it indicated their prosperity. In this case they
demanded ransom.
After the plunder, every soldier wanted to protect
and preserve his loot. In most cases they attempted to flee
from the place and take their loot to their homes. Therefore,
the task of a leader was to keep soldiers in the camp and not
allow them to leave. Khan faced this problem when he
plundered Sagar and most of his soldiers left him. In the
meantime the Raja of Nagpur arrived to protect the city.
Khan was not in a position to defend himself so he, along
with his three thousand solders, fled from the city to save
their lives, leaving everything behind.
When Holkar made peace with the British, Amir Khan
left him and served under the rulers of Jaipur, Jodhpur and
Udaypur. He also plundered the cities of Rajputna till there
was nothing left to be looted.
92
From Military Adventurer to Nawab
A common misunderstanding regarding Amir Khan
(d.1834) of Tonk, Rajasthan, was the assumption that he
was a Pindari. This is not correct because he was the leader
of a trained army while the Pindaris, on the other hand,
accompanied the Marhatta army as scouts. Later on, they
formed gangs to rob people. Amir Khan, whenever he
engaged in a war, fought with the strategic planning of an
experienced general.
As an independent leader he made deals and signed
peace treaties with rulers of petty states. He had complete
authority over his soldiers and they were hired and
dismissed as he pleased. When he offered his services to any
ruler he joined on his own terms and his soldiers followed
him obediently.
As leader of his army, the crucial problem for him was
to pay his soldiers regularly. As he had no regular income,
the payment was sometimes delayed. In case of non
payment, soldiers adopted dharna (sit-in) and besieged
Amir Khan`s house or tent, holding him captive till he paid at
least a part of their dues. Sometimes more ruthless methods
93
were adopted to force payment. Once he was thrown off a
roof and was seriously injured. At another time, rebel
soldiers put a turban around his neck and tried to
strangulate him. Another method which was used to
pressurise Khan was to force him to sit on a hot cannon and
hold him there until he promised to pay the soldiers.
Khan tolerated the misbehaviour of his soldiers and
treated them like his children. As soon as he got money he
immediately paid them. One of the reasons behind his
success was that he kept his soldiers on even during the bad
periods the army faced from time to time. Soldiers relied on
his promise and remained loyal to him.
Khan`s character fully reflected the values of his time.
On the one hand, as a result of the political and social
decadence, there was no respect for moral values and
norms. Mercenaries were hired to kill for payment; they
plundered and tortured common people mercilessly. On the
other hand, they honoured their word and remained loyal to
their friends. For example, when Khan became a friend of
Holkar, he stayed loyal to him in spite of all political
vicissitudes and supported him whenever he was in trouble;
even after his death, he cooperated with his successors.
Similarly, he never betrayed his friend Zalim Singh, the ruler
of Kotah.
He needed regular income to pay his soldiers and the
best source was to go on a plunder rampage, however, if the
wealthy people or the ruler requested him to spare their city
he abandoned the siege and left the city in peace. Once,
during his adventures, he demanded the Nawab of Swat to
pay him some money. In response, the begum of the nawab
94
sent him some jewellery, asharfis and one and a half lakh
rupees with a message that, being a Muslim he should give
them some concession. On receiving this, he returned all the
wealth and asked her to pay only 100 rupees; the same thing
happened in the case of Kasur. When he besieged the city
with the intention to plunder it, the citizens appealed to him
on the basis of being his co-religionists. On receiving this
message he left the city without taking anything.
In another incident, when he reached Jaipur to loot
the city, Jagat Singh, the Raja was not in the city. His sister
sent her dupatta with a message that there was nobody to
protect her in the city, therefore Khan should treat her like
his sister. He left the city undisturbed. From then on, every
year, the rani of Jaipur used to send a rakhi to the nawab of
Tonk
Holkar fully understood Khan`s nature and character
and often exploited him by using tricks. Once both of them
plundered the city of Pune and amassed a hoard of precious
jewellery and rich treasurers of Peshwa, the Marhatta chief.
According to their contract it should have been divided
equally between them. However, Holkar put the entire war
booty on one side and a sword on the other and asked Khan
to choose either one. He took the sword and left the rest to
Holkar.
Eventually Khan realised that nearly all Marhatta
leaders had been defeated, one by one, by the East India
Company and his scope as an independent military
adventurer was becoming severely constrained. It appeared
to be the end of one career and the beginning of another.
Throughout his life, he had engaged in war and plunder;
95
now he wanted a peaceful life. Therefore, in 1817, he signed
a peace treaty with the Company. He was awarded the
nawabship of Tonk in Rajasthan. After becoming the nawab,
he built palaces, gardens and a fort. He died in 1834 and left
a state which survived till 1947.
96
Europeans in India
India had trade relations with Europe since ancient
times. Greeks and Romans were the earliest traders, while in
the medieval period came the Portuguese, Dutch, French,
and the English. Up to the 16th century, Alexandria and
Constantinople were the centres of trade and commerce and
linked Europe with Asia. These centres were later on shifted
to Venice and Genoa. Pope Alexander, in one of his edicts
divided the known world of his time between Portugal and
Spain; according to this India was awarded to Portugal.
Traders and merchants played an important role in
disseminating valuable knowledge about India. This flow of
information increased in the 13th century with the increase
in communication between India and Europe. In 1213, Sir
John Mandeville published a book about India for the
general public. However, he did not disclose the source of
his information, i.e. whether he himself travelled to India or
gathered the information from various sources. In 1330,
some books were published in Latin but they did not
provide accurate information. These books were attributed
to a priest named Idovicus, who claimed that he travelled
97
from Hamuz to Thana in India and has documented his
observations in his travelogue. After him we find the name
of Frederij, a trader of Venice, who travelled in 1563 to the
western Ghat in India.
The first Englishman who came to India was Thomas
Stephens who travelled up to the Western Ghats in India.
After observing commercial potentials of India he wrote to
his father, who was a trader that the English should share
the commercial profit which was till then monopolised by
the Portuguese. This letter created great enthusiasm among
the trading community of England to establish trade links
with India. From then on, India became the centre of
commercial interest and travellers from all European
countries began to visit India. On their return, they wrote
their accounts which created further interest about India. As
a result, India emerged as a mysterious and romantic
country which also provided opportunities for huge profits.
Those
European
travellers
who
visited
India
belonged to various professions; they were Christian
missionaries, traders, ambassadors, and adventurers. They
wrote about Indian history, culture, traditions, customs, and
economic and political conditions. They also observed the
weaknesses of Indian society. Some of them pointed out that
there was no discipline in the Indian army and it could easily
be defeated by the European army. French traveller,
Francois Bernier, who visited India during 1655 to 1668,
wrote that India could be defeated by the French Generals
and only 20 thousand soldiers were enough to crush the
Indian soldiers. He also mentioned the prosperity of Bengal
and its weak defence system. In 1746, Cpl. James Mill, who
98
resided in India for 20 years, wrote a letter to the king of
Austria urging him that the conquest of Bengal was easy and
profitable.
The contacts of Europeans with India increased
during the Mughal rule. The Mughal Empire was both
militarily and financially powerful. During this period
European traders were interested in maintaining good
relations with the Mughal court and tried to get as many
commercial concessions as possible. They used different
methods to achieve their objects; for example, the rulers of
those countries sent gifts to Mughal ambassadors and
demanded commercial facilities for their merchants. The
traders, on their arrival, tried to get custom duties waived
off by bribing government officials. We can say that both
flattery and corruption was used for getting trade
concessions.
English ambassador, Thomas Roe, who visited India
from 1615 to 1618, belonged to the English aristocracy and
was accustomed to court etiquette. He was accepted as an
equal by the Mughal nobility. He left an interesting account
of India which is a great source of information about the
Mughal history. Among the trading community there were
all kinds of people; some of them well mannered while some
were thieves and cheaters. When Jahangir came into contact
with Roe and other noble Englishmen, he regarded them as
cultured and civilised. The business community of India had
a good opinion about the English traders but at the same
time believed that it was not easy to have business with
them.
The common people had a different perception of the
99
Europeans. As their eating and drinking habits were
different from the locals, the impression was that they ate
beef and pork and drank so much wine that they lose their
senses. Therefore, people did not like them and regarded
them as ill mannered and uncultured. When the European
traders established their trading stores or kothi where they
stored the goods and merchandise for sending to Europe,
the Indians considered them as third rate traders who came
to India for profit and used all kinds of tricks to get more
money.
100
European Military Adventurers
In the 18th century a large number of European
military adventurers started coming to India in the hope of
getting a job and earning lots of money. The first Europeans
who came to India were merchants. Their main motive was
to earn profit by trade. When the stories of Indian wealth
spread to Europe, they were followed by mercenary soldiers
who expected to be welcomed by Indian rulers in order to
train their armies. They came with the intention to collect as
much money as possible and take it back to their homeland
to spend a comfortable life.
These
European
military
adventurers
became
popular in the wake of the political disturbance in the
subcontinent. After the break up of the Mughal Empire, the
emerging successive states wanted strong armies not only
for their defence but also to extend their territories. As India
lacked military technique and discipline, European officers
earned fame as trainers. Soon, there was great demand for
them, in almost all the states, to train and equip their armies
on European model.
The early European officers were mostly French who
101
were employed from 1784 to 1903 by Mughal emperors,
rulers of Awadh, Nizamul Mulk of Hyderabad, Hyder Ali and
Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and by states of Rajputana and
Marhatta leaders. The East India Company felt uneasy
because of the presence of the French military officers and
thought that France might increase its influence in India
through its officers and attempt to replace the British.
Moreover, the high officials of the Company were afraid that
the French might play the same role as they did in the
American war of Independence and might militarily equip
the Indian states against the British as they did in America
and Canada by training the Red Indians. However, the
Company was not powerful enough to check the growing
influence of the French at the early stage.
The period of these adventurers can be divided into
two phases. The first phase came to an end in 1803 when the
Marhatta forces under the French commanders were finally
defeated by the British, thus ending the French threat. The
second phase started with the Sikhs coming to power in the
19th century in Punjab and continued for 36 years, ending
with their defeat in 1949.
European soldiers who came to India included
British, Irish, Scots, French, German, Dutch, Italian,
American, Armenian, and Jews. Some of them settled here
permanently and married Indian women. Kipling talks about
the training of Indian soldiers on European style in these
words "Drilled a Blackman white and made coward fight."
Rulers of Indian states trusted the French more than
others and believed that they, after training the forces,
would defend them from the threat of the East India
102
Company.
Herbert
Compton
in
European
Military
Adventurers quotes a contemporary British officer saying
that in India, military adventurers wandered from place to
place to serve the ruler of one state after another. Their only
purpose was to get money; they were not concerned with
who employed them. The same was the case with the Indian
soldiers; they served those who paid them well. In this
sense, Indians were `citizens of the world`. They were not
loyal to any ruler, region or country.
These Europeans accumulated wealth by using all
possible means. Besides their salary and income from the
jagir, they also got gifts from the rulers on different
occasions. They shared war booty. Those who were
intelligent invested their money in business. When they
accumulated enough wealth they either returned to their
homeland or settled in India. Sometimes they got huge
amounts of money accidentally. For example, when Ghulam
Qadar Rohella fled from Delhi along with the looted wealth,
he was followed by a French officer who got all the gold and
other valuables which were in his possession. The officer
retired from the military service to spend the rest of his life
in luxury.
Some of these European officers completely adopted
Indian culture and took Indian names Rheinhardt became
Sumro, George Hessing became Jorus sahib, Lous Bouguien`s
name changed to Loi sahib, George Thomas was known as
Jahazi sahib or Jorj Bahadur, Peron was called Pero, Iskinner
became popular as Sikandar, Robert Sundherland became
Satlaj sahib, Captain Symess Indianised as Sink sahib.
The European soldiers who were employed by Ranjit
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Singh had to sign a contract that after marrying Indian
women they would adopt Indian culture. They were told not
to eat beef, not to smoke in public, to grow a beard, respect
the Sikh religion, and not refuse to fight even against their
own country.
At present we have a different type of foreign
adventurers known as consultants and experts who are
coming to Pakistan to train us in different fields. After
getting hefty amounts of money as their fee they leave for
their homeland leaving behind nothing but chaos and
misery.
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Soldiers on Hire
When the Mughal dynasty was in the process of
decline and subsequently all institutions of the state started
to lose their control over administration, the ruling classes,
who needed political stability to preserve their high social
status and privileges, found themselves unprotected and
insecure. Continuous civil wars for succession endangered
both their life and property. Those who depended on the
income of jagirs were unable to collect revenue which
affected their financial condition.
Under these circumstances rulers of the petty states
and the powerful and wealthy nobles recruited their own
private armies for their security and protection as well as to
force peasants to pay revenue. The demand for soldiers for
private armies provided opportunities to the unemployed
and the poor who joined the services of any leader who
assured them of payment. Private armies became an
industry and soldiers moved from one place to another in
order to get employment. It shows that in the absence of any
other opportunity, the army became an attractive choice for
the poor. They were ready to fight and die rather than to
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starve and die in poverty.
Taking advantage of this, there emerged some
military adventurers who recruited their own armies. They
were mercenaries and sold their services to any ruler or
noble who required them to fight on their behalf. The sole
motive of these military adventurers was to get as much
money as they could. They fought for plunder and loot and
not for any moral or high values.
Those soldiers who joined the private armies did not
get any regular salary. Whatever they got was from plunder
after the war or some amount which was given to their
leader after getting a contract with some ruler or noble. This
was distributed among them according to their status and
services.
It became a tradition that when a military adventurer
recruited soldiers for his army, he organised them as a union
or a cooperative group. He had the authority to make or
cancel contracts with rulers or nobles on behalf of his
soldiers and led them to fight. However, from time to time,
soldiers challenged him if he failed to provide them financial
support.
The leader had to keep his men in order and satisfied.
If soldiers found their leader inefficient or incompetent they
left him and joined some other leader who had a higher
success rate in campaigns and consequently plundered more
wealth. These private armies were run on democratic lines;
the distance between the leader and other soldiers was not
wide and they freely talked to him and criticised him if he
failed to satisfy them. They respected their leader only
because of his courage, boldness, and his diplomatic skill in
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handling serious matters. Otherwise there were no
privileged or unprivileged classes in the army. All were
equal,
These military adventurers were getting offers from
rulers as well as nobles. The reason was that war became
the only solution for all political disputes. Rulers of petty
states fought to keep their borders intact while others tried
to seize the land to extend their own territories. There were
also wars of succession and each claimant made attempts to
get a strong army to fight for his success. The nobility kept
their own army to protect their families and properties in
chaotic situations where armed gangs roamed wild and
looted and plundered at will.
Another characteristic of private armies was that the
soldiers made no discrimination on the basis of caste and
creed. Hindus and Muslims fought together for money
against their co-religionists. They were not concerned with
who was right or wrong. They fought on the side which paid
them. The concept of loyalty had also lost its value. They
betrayed their patron if he did not accede to their wishes.
Sometimes they changed sides and fought against their
former benefactor with the same zeal as when they were in
his service. In many cases it happened that the father was on
one side and his son on the other.
It was the responsibility of the leader to keep his
soldiers busy and pay them. If he did not get any offer, his
army started to act independently and raided villages and
plundered them. But in spite of this, these soldiers could
never accumulate enough wealth to become independent
enough to leave the profession and spend the rest of their
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lives in peace. Whatever they got as a result of plunder was
distributed amongst themselves and was immediately spent
on their daily expenditure and supporting of families.
The lifestyle of these soldiers had its impact on the
social and cultural life of Indian society. All soldiers, the
Hindus and Muslims, lived in a camp together and served
either the Hindu or Muslim ruler or leader without any
hesitation. Their economic needs and profession joined
them together and created an atmosphere of religious
tolerance.
At present we have lashkars (armies) who are
fighting religious wars to revive the golden period of history.
To finance their expenditure they also resort to kidnapping
for ransom, seizing the properties of rivals and compelling
people to pay them donation. In matters of religion and
social life they are not tolerant but extremist. This is how
two private armies differ from each other.
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Indian Culture and the British
The early Europeans who came to India were either
traders or military adventurers. On their arrival and
interaction with the Indian aristocracy, they were very
impressed and felt attracted to the Indian culture; they
adopted it whole heartedly and became a part of the Indian
society. In the early phase of their arrival in India they had
no concept of racial or cultural superiority; neither was
there any contempt for local customs and traditions.
Therefore, they had no problem in adapting to the new
environment and adjusted their habits and living style
accordingly.
The British, in India, underwent different stages and
changed their attitude in view of the new circumstances.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, they regarded the
Indian civilisation and culture as equal to that of Europe.
They communicated with and were appreciative of educated
Indians who could talk to an European confidently on
various subjects. This is evident from the remarks of the
French traveller Bernier who wrote about the Mughal noble,
Danishmand Khan, that he was a very knowledgeable
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person.
An English officer Col. Sleeman, too, wrote about a
Muslim gentleman who had full knowledge of Plato`s and
Aristotle`s philosophy and was aware of Hippocrates` and
Galen`s system of medicine, and acquired this knowledge
from the writings of Ibn Sina and other Muslim
philosophers, and was capable of discussing literature,
science, art, and philosophy.
It is important here to narrate some salient features
of the Indian culture which fascinated the Europeans. Indian
culture was feudal and not a common man`s culture. The
Mughal society was divided into classes. The Nobiles, who
had political power and economic resources, were in a
position to set up a culture which not only distinguished
them from common people but provided them all sorts of
luxury and comfort. They kept large harems with beautiful
women, built palaces for their residence, gardens for their
leisure, and had large numbers of servants to serve them.
The status of a noble was determined by his kitchen. It was
customary to invite friends for feasts. On this occasion,
cooks prepared a large variety of dishes for the guests.
Special dishes were also exchanged among the nobles. It
became a tradition that whenever the noble went out, he did
so in an elaborately organised procession and a large
number of servants and soldiers accompanied him.
Compared to this was the common man`s culture
which was simple and reflected the poverty and misery of
the common people.
Therefore, when the early Europeans, including the
British, arrived in India they got in contact with the nobility
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and had a chance to observe their culture. They found it not
only attractive but useful because it served to raise their
social status to that of the elite class of India; moreover, it
provided them comfort and luxury. They were fascinated
with it and found themselves drawn to it; soon they began to
indianise themselves.
After adopting the Indian culture, it became easy for
them to have social and cultural relations with the nobility
on equal terms. As traders they had to seek commercial
benefits from the ruling classes, therefore, they observed
local etiquettes and customs like presenting nazr or gifts in
order to express their submission. Once they became a part
of this class, they also drew respect in the eyes of the
common people who honoured and obeyed them like other
privileged classes.
Another reason for their Indianisation was that in the
early period they were few in number and it was not
possible to live in separate settlements and retain their
original lifestyle. Therefore, they had no choice but to live
like the Indians. Moreover, away from their homeland and
their culture, they felt a void so they readily filled this gap
with the local culture to enjoy and pass their time
participating in social gatherings and festivals.
As they did not have any political power and
depended on the good-will of the government officials, their
attitude was submissive and their only interest was to earn
as much money as possible and return to their country. To
achieve these objects, they tried to please the officials and
behaved like them to get favours.
They also learnt Persian, which was the court
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language, as well as the local languages to communicate with
the common people. As they demanded concessions from
the government, they respected the Mughal rule and
honoured all its rules and regulations. That`s why the early
British were accepted by the Indian society as a part of itself.
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Marriage and the Indian Culture
For early European settlers in the sub-continent, their
true introduction to and adoption of the Indian culture was
through marriage with Indian women. However, this
practice was not accepted in the early phases. Initially the
Portuguese authorities sent women for their employees and
soldiers from Portugal. Perhaps the reason was to keep
them away from the local people and their culture. As the
Portuguese were extremists in their religion, they did not
want their soldiers to adopt non-Christian customs and
practices.
The East India Company also followed the same
policy but soon abandoned it as it was too expensive to
bring women from England. There-fore the Company
allowed its servants to marry Indian women and keep
mistresses. The high officials of the Company deliberately
married in the families of nobles in order to get social status
and respect in the society.
Fanny Parkes, who visited India in the 18th century,
writes in her book, wandering of a Pilgrim in search of the
Picturesque, that the Indian society accepted the marriage of
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a Muslim woman with a Christian man and there was no
religious or social obstacle to prevent or condemn it. Col.
Gardner, who was married to a Muslim woman, explained to
Fanny Parkes that a marriage between a Muslim woman and
Christian man which was performed by a Qazi was as legal
as one performed by the Bishop of Calcutta.
Fanny Parkes describes Col. Gardner`s family history
in detail, many members of which married women of
Muslim noble families. Gardner married the princess of
Khambayat whose name was Zahorunnisa. Her sister was
also married to an Englishman, Heder Hereset. After
marriage Zahorunnisa continued to practice her religion.
Her daughters were brought up as Muslim and married into
the Mughal royal family. Her sons also married Muslim
women.
Gardner`s son, Allen Gardner, was married to Bi Bi
Sahib Anga. His brother, James Gardner, married Hymani
Begam, the daughter of Mughal prince Suleman Shukoh. Col.
Gardner was proud to have relations with the Mughal royal
family.
The result of these marriages was that the household
of the British became totally Indian. They ate Indian food
and dressed like the Indian nobles. They fully participated in
all Indian festivals and social and cultural ceremonies. Fanny
Parkes observed that the Gardner family lived like Indian
princes and adopted Indian customs and practices. They
kept a harem like the upper classes of India. Their women
observed purdah and lived in a separate portion of the
house. Their children were educated like other Indians. Col.
Gardner once told Fanny Parkes that at night, in the extreme
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heat of summer season, he slept surrounded by 500 women.
Famous mercenary soldier Reinhardt first married a
Muslim woman. He had a son from her who was given the
title of Zafaryab by the Mughal emperor. His second
marriage was to the well known Begam Sumru. She was
Muslim but later on converted to Christianity. There was no
charge of apostasy against her.
The British, in spite of their religious taboos, kept
many wives and mistresses. They also followed the tradition
of the Indian nobility of keeping harems. The concept of a
harem was to have a spacious house with open courtyard
and garden. There would be a large number of servants
including eunuchs to serve in the inner apartment reserved
for women and mistresses. This was regarded a symbol of
social status for higher classes. Ochterlony, who was known
in India as Akhtar Lony, had 13 wives in his harem who, in
the evening, went out for fresh air on elephants. Another
Englishman, Skinner, had 14 wives.
The concept of harem honour was so widespread that
harem women lived in isolation from the men`s world and it
was regarded as highly insulting for somebody to talk about
them in public or even in private. When Ochterlony was in
the service of Ranjeet Singh, he complained that the guards`
tents were too close to his harem which was against the
etiquette. Ranjeet Singh immediately ordered that nobody
should go near those tents. The same thing happened in the
case of Metcalf, the British Resident of Delhi, who
complained about the proximity of the soldiers near his
harem while visiting Ranjeet Singh.
The marriage of Muslim women to Christian men and
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conversion from Islam to Christianity was also tolerated in
the later Mughal society. Though there was political decline,
the society became more liberal and open in matters of
religion and social and cultural practices.
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The English Factory
In 1612, the first factory was established by the East
India Company at the port city of Surat. Its employees, called
factors, were brought in from England in 1613.
To begin with they rented stores in order to keep
goods which the Company wanted to purchase and send to
Europe. The first concern of the Company was to get a
reduction on custom duties. To secure these concessions, it
served their interest to maintain good relations with the
Mughal officials and bribe them to avoid payment of taxes.
At Surat, the English factory was known as the
Angrezon ki kothi and its first President was Keridge. The
second factory was set up by the Company at the city of
Bharoch. The goods were either purchased on cash or in
exchange of spices which the Company brought from the Far
East.
As the English society was feudal, traders had low
social status. That`s why the Company used the term
adventurer instead of trader in its documents to get some
respectability. Only the lower classes applied for the post of
factors as they did not have any opportunity in their own
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country to earn a good living. The nobility regarded it below
its dignity to accept such a job. Therefore, the structure of
the Company was hierarchical and class based.
The president and factors resided within the premise
of the factory. Everyone had his separate room; however,
they ate and worshipped together. The president was
allowed to keep a horse and carriage while the other staff
used bullock carts. The president observed all customs and
rituals of the Indian aristocracy. He had a large number of
local servants whose monthly salary was just one rupee. A
number of slaves were also part of the retinue; they were
made to dress in white so they could be distinguished from
the rest of the staff and were allowed to eat only rice and
fish.
The company`s documents from 1639 to 1642
provide full information about its servants, their duties,
lifestyle and hobbies. For example, the Company made
arrangements for worship inside the factory. On Sunday,
service was held three times and a priest delivered a
sermon. After this, the workers went out to the city for
entertainment or for a walk in the garden.
On Friday, the president and his friends gathered for
a drink for which the best wine was procured from Shiraz.
Tea was not introduced in Europe until 1638 but in India tea
was becoming a habit among the workers of the factory.
We also have information about the construction of
the English factory at Surat. The Report of 1668 stated that it
was built of stones. It contained several rooms for its
workers and had separate rooms for dining and worship. It
also housed a collection of antiques along with a number of
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pets. Working hours were from 10 am to 12 am and then
from 4 pm to 8 pm.
The president was the head of the administration. He
was assisted by a council of eight members. It was required
that at least five of them should reside at the Surat factory.
The next important post was of the accountant. After him
came the in-charge of stores who kept a record of all those
goods which were sent to Europe. Another officer, known as
mariner Bursar, documented the export and import of goods
and paid salaries to the naval staff of the company. Last was
the secretary and it was his responsibility to oversee the day
to day management. All of the officers were members of the
council.
A newly recruited worker was known as an
apprentice. After working for a fixed period he was
promoted to the post of writer. His salary was 10 pounds
annually. After five years he became a factor with an annual
salary of 20 pounds. After serving three years, his next
promotion was senior factor. After that it was the post of
senior merchant; lastly, he was given the assignment to
oversee a newly set-up factory.
Except for the accountant and writer half of the salary
of the servants was deposited in England as a surety. In case
of some wrongdoing or violation of some rule the amount
was confiscated by the authorities of the company. Besides
this staff, there was a chaplain, doctor and surgeon. A
munshi (meaning scribe but here it applied to researcher)
was appointed to teach the staff local languages.
In 1698, Ovington, a British traveller, visited the
factory and pointed out some changes which had occurred in
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the past years. According to him the number of local
servants had increased. Though their salary was low, they
were honest and loyal. All servants of the Company used to
eat together and their seats were arranged according to
their status. Dinner plates were made of gold and silver.
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Symbols of Culture
One of the important features of feudal culture was
that it was regarded below the dignity of aristocrats to walk
on foot like ordinary people. Rich, influential and high
officials always used some conveyance suitable to their
status in order to impress people by showing their power
and wealth. The British officials also adopted this tradition
to maintain their status in the eyes of the local population.
One of the examples is the procession of the President
of the Company of Madras. When he went out he was
accompanied by 400 native soldiers as his personal guards
and his movement was announced by the beating of
kettledrums warning passers-by to clear the way for his
procession. He had his own flag which was decorated with
shining stars. Even his council members used some
privileges such as aftabgir or umbrella, which was reserved
only for high ranking official.
Whenever the Resident of Murshidabad came out of
his house, servants stood in line on both sides to offer
salaam and pay their respects by bowing in front of him. His
conveyance was accompanied by a company of horsemen as
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his guards. It became customary for English officers to be
accompanied by at least 20 horsemen when they went
outside. Even when an official moved from one room to
another in his own house at least four servants preceded
him carrying a silver asa or staff as a symbol of his authority.
Every English officer had elephants, horses and palanquins
for his conveyance. Ochterlony had a large number of
carriages and palanquins. When he went out, a procession
containing horsemen, foot soldiers and a large number of
servants accompanied him.
In the later Mughal period, the language of the
nobility was Persian and Urdu and as the British had to
communicate with the nobility and common people, they
had to learn these languages. There were individuals who,
after living many years in India, forgot how to speak their
own language properly. One example is that of Thomas
George. When Franklin interviewed him to write his
biography, he dictated it in broken English while his
knowledge of Persian and Urdu was excellent and he spoke
both languages as well as the locals did. Skinner`s Persian
was so perfect that he wrote his autobiography in this
language. It was translated into English by Fraser.
The British officers also imitated the etiquette of the
Mughal court. They used to hold their own darbar or court
where their subordinates presented them nazr or offering as
a sign of their loyalty and received awards in appreciation of
their services. Skinner held his darbar at Jhansi where those
who were under him attended and paid him homage.
They also adopted the hobbies of the Mughal nobility
such as watching dog and cockfights, hunting, attending
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poetic concerts (mushai`ra) and composing poetry in
Persian and Urdu. They were fully accustomed to the habits
of the upper classes such as eating pan, using attar, wearing
garlands around their neck, and holding dance and music
mehfils.
In the Later Mughal period, the British officer became
a part of the Mughal aristocracy. The Mughal emperor
awarded them the robe of honour, jagir or fief, gifts, and
stipends. Like the Mughal nobles, the emperor bestowed
high and pompous titles on the British officers as well; for
example, Skinner was awarded the title Nasirud-dola, Col.
James Skinner Bahadur, Ghalib Jang. Skinner was so proud of
it that he had it inscribed on his ring. The Resident of Delhi,
Metcalf was given the title of Muntazimud-dola or the
Administrator of the State.
The early British, by adopting the cultural symbols of
the Mughals, integrated with the nobility and enjoyed their
lifestyle. The Indians also accepted them as a part of their
society. It was not a new phenomenon for them as before the
English many foreigners had arrived and mixed with the
Indians and lost their original identity. It shows their
tolerance and the flexibility of their culture. However, this
honeymoon period came to an end when the East India
Company became a dominant political power and changed
the relationship from integration to exclusiveness.
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Indianisation of the British
As the tradition of marrying Indian women became
more widespread, the lifestyle of British settlers turned
completely Indian. They became accustomed to Indian food
and forgot the taste of English cuisine. When Fanny Parkes
visited Col. Gardner, she ate only Indian food during her
stay.
According to Mughal tradition, nobles were granted a
special kitchen allowance in order to entertain their guests;
this custom was followed by the East India Company as well
and the Resident of Delhi received Rs.5000 for his kitchen
expenses. All those who visited him were offered lunch or
dinner depending on the time of the day.
Similarly, these settlers also adopted the Indian dress.
When Bishop Heber met Ochterlony, he found him dressed
in Indian clothing, looking like a Mughal noble.
Due to the extreme polarisation of wealth, a large
section of society was crushed by poverty. Thus servants
were available at very low salary and the British, like the
Indian nobles, employed many servants for their comfort as
well as for status. For example one of the British traders at
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Calcutta, though not very rich or resourceful, had 63
servants at his disposal. Those who were rich and powerful
often kept more than a hundred. The number of servants
one could afford was a symbol of one`s status, honour and
respect in society.
It is interesting to learn how the duties of this army of
servants were divided. For example, it was customary for
every noble Englishman to keep a servant whose duty was
to maintain the huqqa or Hubble bubble ready for him. The
servant accompanied him along with his hubble bubble
when the master went out for a walk or as a guest to
someone`s house. After dinner, all servants brought the
huqqas, placed them in front of their masters and silently
stood behind them.
Like the Indian nobles, the British officers also took
their servants to the battlefield. In 1780, a captain had a
Steward, a cook, a keeper of his dress, two servants for his
horse, a barber, and a waterman. There were 115 quliis to
carry his baggage which included wine, tea, chickens for
food and goats for a regular supply of milk.
Fanny Parkes writes that in a household of a middle
class British family there were at least 35 servants at a
monthly salary from Rs.4 to 12. These servants included a
khansama, whose duty was to buy household goods, the
amber was in charge of wine, water and ice, while the
mash`alchi was in charge of light during the night; tailor
master, water carrier, milkman, coachman, gardener,
carpenter, cooks, ayhas for children, guards, and peons
made up the rest of the retinue.
Analysing the endless supply of cheap labour
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available to the rich, one can understand the economic
condition of common people who were ready to work on
minimum salary. One can see how the aristocracy enjoyed
the pleasures of life and exploited the poverty of their
subordinates. When an Englishman visited India in 1858 and
saw so many servants in the homes of his countrymen, he
was shocked. But when he was told that their monthly salary
he understood the phenomenon of keeping a large number
of servants.
It is interesting to learn the daily routine of an English
officer. It was the duty of a servant to wake up his master. A
barber shaved him while he was lying in bed, cut his nails,
and cleaned his ears. By this time his breakfast was ready
which he ate at his leisure. After that his barber arranged his
hair. Then it was time for the huqqa; the servant who was in
charge of it served it after cleaning it and filling fresh
tobacco. When the officer went to his office he was
accompanied by up to 12 servants who carried his office
files and other baggage.
Unfortunately, the feudal culture is still thriving in
Pakistan. We see it not only in the jagirs of feudal lords but
even in the cities where elite classes faithfully follow these
outdated feudal traditions to preserve their status in society.
We do not have the Mughals or the British but we have
retained their heritage of the feudal culture.
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Change of Relationship
The close cultural relationship which developed
between the British and the Indians during the 18th century,
started to change gradually in line with the political
domination of East India Company.
One of the reasons was that the Company, which was
a trading firm, transformed into a political power in India
and, by defeating the local rulers, acquired political
domination. As a result of this, it changed the character of its
servants. As a trading company most of its servants and
employees belonged to the poor or middle classes and had
no high social status in their country. They came to India for
economic opportunities.
Some of the Europeans came independentely to Indai
got jobs in the military of the local rulers and worked as
their subordinates. Therefore, they had no racial superiority
and no contempt for the Indians. That`s why they were
charmed by the Indian culture and adopted it without any
prejudice. It provided them not only respect and status but
comfort and luxury as well.
In the second phase, when the Company became a
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political power, those who came to rule over India belonged
to the British aristocracy. They had higher social status in
their own society. Political power created in them a sense of
superiority for their own culture and contempt for Indian
customs and traditions. They were arrogant and treated
Indians as an inferior race. The relationship which was
based on equality in the early period changed. It was now
between the victors and the vanquished.
In the early phase they were few in number and they
had to live along with the local people. However, slowly,
their number increased and they started to live in separate
residential areas which consequently isolated them and
their contact with local people reduced to the minimal level.
When in 1813, the East India Company allowed
Christian missionaries to come to India for preaching, it
created fear among the Indians that this was an attempt to
change their religion. As some of the English officers
enthusiastically supported these activities, the locals began
to distrust them and tried not to have any communication
with them. The missionaries created an atmosphere of
religious prejudice and hatred; this in turn encouraged the
locals to unite and defend their religion and counter
missionary propaganda. It made every Indian extremely
conscious of his or her religious identity. The outcome of
this was that the locals and the British lost their erstwhile
cultural relations and became alienated from each other.
One of the most important reasons of cultural
estrangement was the arrival of a large number of British
women who came to India to seek husbands. Due to this, the
tradition of intermarriages between British men and Indian
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women came to an end. The absence of Indian women
changed the atmosphere of the British household. There was
no more Indian cuisine or the celebration of Indian festivals.
Instead, English culture prevailed; so much so that the
British ceased to invite their Indian friends to their house.
No Indian was invited to the dance parties because
the British did not want to allow them to watch their women
dancing. The British community became so conscious of the
negative effects of Indian culture that they sent their
children at an early age to England for education. They did
not take the risk of keeping them in India and letting them
be polluted by Indian culture.
However, it was political power which caused the real
and final rift with the Indians. The British, as rulers, wanted
to maintain a different image. Isolation and distance from
the common people was necessary for this. Therefore, they
separated their residential areas as civil lines and
cantonments and set up their exclusive clubs. They made
contact with the Indians only when business required and,
by and large, most British officers and their English visitors
came into contact with only those Indians who worked for
them.
Political domination and religious fundamentalism
created racial superiority among the British ruling classes.
Lord Cornwallis and Wellesley as Governor Generals
promoted these sentiments among their fellows. It was
ingrained in their mind that their civilisation and culture
were superior to the Indians` which was backward and
inferior. This provided the British a moral tool with which
they justified their rule over India as an attempt to civilise it.
129
The
complete
break
up
between
these
two
communities occurred after 1857. It ended the last vestige of
the Mughal Empire and India came under the British crown.
The native states had lost all their independence.
To the Indians, 1857 was not only a political but also
a cultural defeat. The colonial rulers promoted English
culture to dominate the Indians intellectually. Culture
became the effective tool to control the educated Indian
class and mould them in favour of colonial policies.
130
Company Bahadur
During the British rule in India, an interesting lesson
`The blessing of the English Government', was taught in
schools. It compared the past with the present, pointing out
that prior to the British rule there was political chaos,
disorder and no rule of law. People had no security of life or
property and armies of warlords were busy looting and
plundering.
It was a reminder to the people of India that the
English government restored law and order and established
peace in the country. Therefore, people in turn should be
grateful to the government for its laudable achievements.
But how was it that the English managed to occupy such a
vast country so easily? Was it their military power or the
policy of fraud and deception; or the inevitable result of
weak
Indian
rulers?
History
shows
that
without
collaboration, it is impossible for a foreign power to occupy
and sustain its rule in any country. So who were the
collaborators who supported the English and helped them
establish their rule? The rulers of the minor states of
southern India sought military help of the English and the
131
French to resolve their internal disputes. This was an
opportunity for the European powers to interfere in the
internal affairs of the Indian states.
In exchange they would demand cash or land.
Surpassing the French in this conflict, the British soon
emerged as a military power in the region. Unhappy with the
Company's interference in the internal affairs of his
province, Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal organised
his army and defeated the British in Kolkata. The British
sent reinforcements under Colonel Robert Clive from
Chennai (Madras) to Bengal and recaptured Kolkata.
Tensions and suspicions between Siraj-ud-Daulah and the
British culminated in the Battle of Plassey, which lingered
for seven years. When Clive arrived in Bengal, he realised
that it would be difficult for him to win the battle purely on
the basis of military strength. He decided to conspire with
Umi Chand, Mir Qasim and the bankers of Bhagat Seth who
had business interests with the East India Company. Mir
Qasim collaborated because he wanted to become the ruler
of Bengal at all cost.
So basically there were collaborators, the power
hungry people who were ready to consort with the Company
without realising the cost of their support. Then there were
businessmen acting as agents between the Company as well
as the artisans who manufactured textile for it.
In the south, Tipu Sultan being an enlightened and
progressive ruler realised the danger of foreign rule. He was
liked neither by the Nizam of Deccan nor the Maratha chiefs.
He was defeated by the combined powers of the Nizam, the
Marathas and the Company. The rulers who did not tolerate
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Tipu and his policies failed to understand that the growing
power of the Company was more dangerous than Tipu, and
conspired with the British. The Marathas were annihilated
by the English while the Nizam survived on humiliating
terms of the Company.
The Indian states were in a dismal condition, the
rulers incapable and the masses had no right to live a
dignified life. However, people who served the Company in
various capacities received regular salaries and pensions
after retirement. This was not a common practice in the
Indian states so working for the Company was much
preferred as it provided security. Once the Company
established its rule, religious scholars and professionals also
offered their services and were proud to be its servants.
In his autobiography, Lutfullah, who served the
Company in its early period, expressed his pride and
gratitude to British officials. It was published in 1854 and
reprinted several times. Taking full advantage of the
situation, the Company extended its hegemony all over
India. Soon they had the intellectuals arguing on their behalf
that the English rule was a blessing to India which had
begun to progress as a modern country.
According to their point of view, the British
introduced new ideas and thoughts to change traditional
society. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan also believed that the British
rule would rescue India from its decadent culture. Here rises
the question whether we should depend on foreign powers
to come and solve our problems for us or is it better to rely
on our own ideas to change our society?
133
The Custom House
When European traders arrived in India, their first
encounter was with the custom officials. It was customary
that as soon as a ship anchored, its captain made his way to
the custom house by boat and announced the arrival of his
ship. The custom officials then sent some armed soldiers to
guard the ship so nothing could be smuggled to the shore
until it was thoroughly checked.
The custom house was a simple building, containing a
large hall which accommodated many officials assigned to
different tasks. The timings were from 10 am to noon. If
traders or travellers arrived late they had to wait on their
ships till the next day to report their arrival. There were a
large number of peons in the custom house who were in
charge of controlling the crowds and would even beat them
up in case of disorder.
Newly arrived traders, after passing through a
courtyard, entered a big room where the higher officers
used to sit. First their name was registered and then they
were thoroughly searched. After this, they were allowed to
go to the city. Their baggage was searched and released
134
later. Custom officials searched everything very minutely
and often took months to complete the job.
The reason for this was that European traders often
attempted to smuggle unlawful goods and tried to avoid the
payment of custom duties. However, the Munhall officers did
not search the President of the Surat factory or any women.
The in-charge of the port was known as Shah Bandar.
The officer who collected the custom duties was called Mir
Bahar. If somebody tried to evade paying duties he was
punished but his baggage and goods were not confiscated;
however, some traders managed to avoid payment by
bribing the officers.
Tavernier, who visited India from 1665 to 1667,
mentions in his travelogue that the English traders often
smuggled small items of gold and silver; one tactic was to
hide gold coins in wigs and wear the wig when
disembarking as that was the least likely place to be
searched.
Tavernier writes that "As soon as merchandise is
landed at Surat it has to be taken to the custom-house, which
adjoins the fort. The officers are very strict and search
persons with great care. Private individuals pay as much as
four to five per cent duty on their goods ...English and Dutch
Companies pay less. But, on the other hand, I believe that
taking into account what it costs them in deputations and
presents, which they are obliged to make every year at
court, the goods cost them nearly the same as they do
private persons."
Lahribandar was another important and busy port in
Sindh. The Portuguese were the first who arrived here for
trade. Custom officers of the port became so familiar with
135
the Portuguese that they even learned their language.
The English started making efforts to set up trade
with Sindh from 1616 to 1630 and finally succeeded in
1635, when a peace treaty was signed between the English
and the Portuguese. In the same year the first English ship
was dispatched to Lahribandar with a letter from Asif Khan,
the brother of Nurjahan and an influential Mughal noble. The
"Discovery," under the command of William Fremlin, landed
at Lahribandar in December of the same year.
The Shah Bandar sent his son to welcome Fremlin.
They were provided the best accommodation and seven
horses for transport. The Shah Bandar also sent them goats,
hens, meat, flour rice, butter and sugar. After the arrival of
the English, the Portuguese lost their influence and the
English carried on extensive trade till the closure of their
factory in 1662.
All European companies had their representatives at
the Mughal court to win the favour of the influential nobles.
Their main concern was to get as much concession as
possible; for this purpose they offered gifts and presents to
the nobles and bribed them to win them over to their side.
The rivalry between the English and the Portuguese was
perhaps the most intense.
Hawkins and Thomas Roe were the English
ambassadors who came to India with the purpose of
attaining business privileges for the English traders.
Generally, they were successful in getting custom duties
waived off. Thus the rate of profit increased for the
company, strengthening its commercial as well as political
position.
136
Justifying of Colonialism
There is a group of historians who justifies the
colonisation of the sub-continent by the British. According to
their point of view, what happened in India was accidental
and the East India Company became entangled in local
disputes un-intentionally.
It is an undeniable fact that many of the Company`s
servants were involved in intrigues, loot and plunder.
Robert Clive made a fortune in India, returned to England
and became a Member of the Parliament; Warren Hastings is
well known for his atrocities against the queen of Awadh.
However, these historians argue that these were
individual acts and that the British government was not
involved. On the contrary, the government impeached both
Clive and Hastings on the charges of corruption and misuse
of power. Wellesley, another Governor General, also barely
escaped impeachment. This shows that the government did
not tolerate corruption and unjust acts committed by the
servants of the Company.
Moreover, these historians are of the view that the
people of England were not fully aware of the occupation of
137
India and it`s after effects. They learnt of the conquest of
Bengal seven years after the event. Once India came under
British rule they administered it properly and defended it
against any foreign invasion. The Cape of Good Hope and
Ceylon were captured to protect India. All this happened
without any planning and circumstances forced the British
to assume the role of a colonial power.
It is further pointed out that when India was an
independent country, it had no dispute with any European
power and there was no danger of any invasion. The British
had to defend India from Persia, Afghanistan and Russia.
This led them to take control over the Indian Ocean and
occupy Adan, Mumbasa, Colombo, Durban, and Perth.
Moreover, the British had to keep a large army to defend
India. The Indian government paid all its expenses because
this was in its interest.
Alfred Loyal, an English historian, in his book The
Rise and Extension of the British Dominion in India, agrees
that the British victories and subsequently the building of a
great empire in India was just accidental. He uses the term
`conquest in blindness` in the beginning as evidence shows it
was not in the interest of the Company to acquire territories
but to devote all its energies to promote trade.
In India there was political chaos and land routes
were not safe. Trading caravans were looted by bandits.
When the Company set up its factories it needed armed
guards to defend them. It was also important to keep an
army to protect ships because there was the danger of
pirates at sea.
This was a time when most of the wars were fought
138
by the European nations on the issue of trade. Each
European nation saw the others as a threat to its interests
and resorted to war to oust the rival power, as in Indonesia
where the English lost against the Dutch. European rivalry
was not limited to Asia and Africa; they were also fighting
bloody wars in Europe on political fronts. However, in India
the conflict was not directly between European states but
between the private companies; albeit with the indirect
support of their respective governments.
In 1687, the East India Company assumed political
power; it built fortresses and struck its own coins. It
recruited the local people into its army. Armenians, Arabs,
Africans and Europeans who were settled here and married
to local women were the first to join. Once it had an army, it
became ambitious and set out to acquire territory. It got this
opportunity because of the political chaos in the Indian
subcontinent, where, after the decline of the Mughal
dynasty, regional powers were fighting for political
domination. They needed help and the Company`s army
provided armed assistance to those who paid well.
It became a regular feature for the Company to
defend any ruler who asked for its help in return for either
cash or territory. The Company`s army was well trained and
equipped with modern weapons. On the other hand, the
Indian armies were disorganised and ill equipped. Thus the
Company`s army had a higher success rate and earned
respect in the eyes of the Indians; this led to a sense of
superiority and the realisation that it could easily defeat the
Indian armies.
The first time the Company interfered in the political
139
affairs of the country was in the South Indian states
including Tanjore, Karnatak, and Hyderabad. There it
contested against the French and succeeded in placing its
own candidate on the throne. This led to a decline in the
influence of the French and a rise in that of the British
Company which gradually became a political power. Its
motive was to establish an empire by ending small states
and their conflicts because only then could it advance its
business. These motives led it to occupy India.
It was difficult for the Company to maintain a large
army. However, it adopted the old Indian tradition of
recruiting soldiers in times of need and dismissing them
when the war was over. According to Loyal, due to their
travels and trade activities the English were more
enlightened than other European nations. That`s why they
did not use religion as a political tool like the Portuguese. On
the contrary, they provided full religious freedom to the
Indians and concentrated only on economic benefits.
On the basis of these arguments, we have groups of
intellectuals who still believe that India became modern
only after the establishment of the British rule. To them
colonialism was a blessing rather than a curse.
140
Company and its Collaborators
The question is how did a trading company become a
political power in India. What were the causes and
circumstances that helped the Company to acquire this
status? The reason for this was the unstable and chaotic
political condition of India, which had weakened due to the
disintegration within the society.
In the social structure of Indian society, the element
of dependence played an important role. Nobility was on the
highest rung of the ladder and a large number of people
depended on its patronage including soldiers, artisans,
businessmen, and ordinary servants. Once the nobility
collapsed and was financially broke, it could not afford to
support large numbers of people. These unemployed people
wandered from one place to another in search of jobs. When
the Company offered jobs to soldiers, they got the
opportunity to serve it and fought for it with loyalty. They
were soldiers and were not bothered with the consequences
of these wars. Actually, they were the people who won India
for the English.
The second group which welcomed the English was
141
the traders. They were attached to the Company from the
beginning because of their commercial interest. During the
Mughal period, textile and other goods were produced in
larger quantities than there was demand in the market. The
Company provided a chance to send the surplus goods to
foreign countries. As India did not have a strong navy to
compete with the European naval powers, they heavily
relied on the Company`s ships to carry their merchandise.
One disadvantage of this collaboration was that the Indian
traders did not get full profit because the company kept a
major part of it as its share. The indirect result was that the
Indian traders became dependent on European companies.
The Indian traders also supported the Company by
supplying those goods which it needed to import. This
relationship became strong with the passage of time.
At the same time, Mughal rulers also encouraged the
English companies to come to India for trade and to counter
the Portugese who were hated by the ruling classes as well
as common people because of their religious extremism and
brutal way of handling the local population. The Portuguese
controlled the sea routes and even pilgrims were required to
pay them for their safety to go to Hajj. The Mughal state, in
the absence of any navy, could not fight and reduce their
naval power. The alternative was to support the English
companies.
The Mughal rulers granted them better trade
concessions and privileges as compared to other nations.
When the Mughal Empire became weak, the English traders,
by offering gifts and bribes to government officials, got royal
decrees which exempted them from custom duties. The
142
result was that the other European traders could not
compete with the Company. Due to these concessions Indian
traders also faced problems. In order to avoid paying custom
and other duties the Indians began sending their goods
along
with
the
Company`s.
A
close
relationship
developedbetween the local traders and the Company and
they supported the Company when it was in trouble.
The Court of Directors instructed the Company that it
was in its interest to employ local people as its agents,
especially the Armenians who were well aware of the Indian
situation and could supply excellent textile. This made the
Armenian traders loyal to the Company.
The other group which collaborated with the
Company was dadni traders. The Company paid them in
advance to supply the required textile; in return they
approached the weavers and ordered them to make specific
fabrics for the Company.
The sahukar or moneylenders of Bengal were very
influential people. They not only collected revenue for the
state but struck coins for it and gave loan to nobles as well
as to the government. They had close relationship with the
Company, which acted as their trade partner. Therefore, in
the conflict between Sirajud Daula and the Company they
sided with the English. The conquest of Bengal changed the
character of the Company - from trading company, it became
a political power. In this capacity more groups and
individuals became attached to it such as translators, local
agents, and banyas or businessmen. When the Mughal state
collapsed, its officers and administrators such as qazi, mufti,
kotwal and revenue collectors joined the service of the
143
Company, which had by this time become more powerful
due to further conquests, and assumed the status of state
within the state.
Once it became a political power, the company
reformed itself from within; it ended corruption and
mismanagement. In 1773, the Regulating Act prohibited the
employees of the Company from accepting any gift. In 1784,
Pitts` Indian Act brought the Company under the Board of
Control. Moreover, it started to train its servants in
administration; care was taken that they should be men of
integrity. Their salaries were raised and they were granted
extra privileges so that they would not take bribe and yet
maintain their high status. Because of their honesty and
devotion to work they were respected by the Indians. These
reforms changed the character of the Company and it not
only conquered India but brought changes to its society.

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