Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Chapter 13 Romanticism Ideologies and Upheavals, 1815-1850 During the eighteenth century a new artistic movement evolved. Classicism was a set of artistic rules that were supported by the rationality of the Enlightenment. At the end of the eighteenth century another, more spontaneous movement developed. Romanticism was a revolt against the Enlightenment and Classicism. The romantics did not ignore reason and rationality, but they tried to find a balance between reason and intuition. The nineteenth century was marked by the Romantic Movement. Romanticism started in Germany and was characterized by unrestrained emotion and spontaneity. In Germany, during the 1770s and 1780s they were called the “Sturm and Drang” (storm and stress) group, because of their emotional intensity. The Romantics tended to rebel against the expected norms of society. They grew their hair long, grew beards, and wore outrageous clothes in an attempt to show their individualism. They rejected materialism and were enchanted by nature, which became a major a theme in their work. They saw modern industry as ugly and the work of Satan. Fascinated by colors and diversity, they turned towards writing history. They saw history as the art of change over time. They were especially fascinated by the Middle Ages, which was seen as an era of great emotion and faith. Literature In Germany, one of the most influential figures was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) who wrote The Sorrows of the Young Werther. (Werther was rejected by a girl who did not love him, and in true romantic fashion he committed suicide). The idea of an individual set apart from society and struggling against great odds was a reoccurring theme for the Romantics. If the individual were to die, sacrificing himself for a desperate cause, so much the better. Other European writers, such as the brothers Grimm in Germany and Hans Christian Anderson in Denmark, copied the romantic genre. The Scottish writer Walter Scott’s classic tale Ivanhoe was a tale about medieval England and became a best seller. Finally, reflecting the Romantic period’s attraction of the bizarre and macabre was Mary Shelley’s famous tale Frankenstein. The Romantics were also great poets. English poet William Wordsworth was fascinated by nature and spent most of his time wandering around the English countryside. Perhaps Wordworth’s most famous poem was “Daffodils.” Other poets also contributed. Lord Byron not only wrote about romantic ideals, he actually went to Greece to fight for Greek Independence. In France, Victor Hugo's, Hunchback of Notre Dame championed romantic tenets. Hugo equated freedom in literature with liberty in politics and society. Amandine Dupin (George Sand) wrote over 80 romantic novels. The most famous and controversial was the autobiographical Lelia, which dealt with the quest for sexual freedom. The greatest Russian Romantic was the poet Pushkin. Art and Music Nineteenth century art was greatly influenced by the Romanticism. Art was a reflection of the emotions of the artist. The greatest romantic painters were the French artist Eugène Delacroix and Englishmen Joseph Turner and John Constable. Constable painted Wordsworthian landscapes with humans as one with nature. English painter John Constable said, “nature is spirit visible.” Chopin, Beethoven, and Schumann transformed the small orchestra, adding wind, percussion, and more brass and strings The greatest composer was Ludwig van Beethoven, who was a child of the Enlightenment. Beethoven lost his hearing but still composed “I will take fate by the throat.” He never heard much of his greatest work, the Ninth Symphony. Metternich and Conservatism Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848, the cosmopolitan Metternich always remained loyal to his class and jealously defended its rights and privileges to the day he died. Metternich's commitment to conservatism was coupled with a passionate hatred of liberalism. He blamed liberal revolutionaries for stirring up the lower classes, which he believed desied nothing more than peace and quiet. Liberalism appeared doubly dangerous to Metternich because it generally went with national aspirations. The idea of national self-determination was repugnant to Metternich. It not only threatened the existence of the aristocracy; it also threatened to destroy the polyglot Austrian Empire and revolutionize central Europe. The vast Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs was a great dynastic state, but the very source of its strength, its size, gave people a reason to fear the ideals of nationalism. The Germans had supported and profited by the long-term territorial expansion of Austria; yet they accounted for only a quarter of the population. The Magyars, a substantially smaller group, dominated the kingdom of Hungary. The Czechs, the third major group, were concentrated in Bohemia and Moravia. The various Slavic peoples, together with the Italians and the Rumanians, represented a widely scattered and completely divided majority in an empire dominated by Germans and Hungarians. They were held together primarily by their ties to the Habsburg emperor. It was strong because of its large population and vast territories; it was weak because of its many and potentially dissatisfied nationalities. Castlereagh even went so far as to say that Austria was the "great hinge upon which the fate of Europe must ultimately depend," a strangely prophetic statement that would prove true in the next century. Radical Ideas and Early Socialism The years following the peace settlement of 1815 were years of profound intellectual activity. Almost all of these basic ideas were radical. Revived conservatism, with its stress on tradition, a hereditary monarchy, a strong and privileged land owning aristocracy, and an official church, was reflected by radicals. Liberalism The principal ideas of liberalism were liberty and equality. First realized successfully in the American Revolution and then achieved in part in the French Revolution, this political and social philosophy continued to pose a radical challenge to revived conservatism. Liberalism demanded representative government as opposed to autocratic monarchy. The idea of liberty also continued to mean specific individual freedoms: freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom from arbitrary arrest. In Europe only France and Great Britain, with its Parliament and historic rights of English men and women, had realized much of the liberal program in 1815. Elsewhere liberal demands were a call for freedom and revolutionary change. Liberalism faced more radical ideological competitors in the early nineteenth century. Often called “classical” liberalism, its supporters resolutely opposed government intervention in social and economic affairs. Opponents of classical liberalism especially criticized its economic principles, which called for unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference in the economy. This philosophy was popularly known as the doctrine of laissez faire. The idea of a free economy had first been persuasively formulated by Scottish philosophy professor Adam Smith, whose Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) founded modern economics. Far preferable were free competition and the “invisible hand” of the self-regulating market, which would give all citizens a fair and equal opportunity to do what they did best. In the early nineteenth century, the British economy was progressively liberalized as old restrictions on trade and industry were relaxed or eliminated. This liberalization promoted continued economic growth in the Industrial Revolution. Businessmen used the doctrine to defend their right to do exactly as they wished in their factories. Labor unions were outlawed because they supposedly restricted free competition and the individual’s “right to work.” Socialism The terrible social conditions created by the Industrial Revolution gave rise to the ideology of socialism. The advocates of socialism were people who wanted to introduce equality into society and who believed in the benefits of cooperation as opposed to the competition of the capitalist system. Socialism would be the mother of many and varied children, including Marxism and Communism. During the Enlightenment socialists believed people could be made better if their surroundings were improved. The utopian socialists were against private property and the economic competition of the Industrial Revolution. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) and David Ricardo (1772-1823) especially helped make economic liberalism an ideology of business interests in many people’s minds. Malthus, in his major work Essay on the Principles of Population, argued that population grows at a geometric rate while the food supply increases at an arithmetic rate. This means that the population would always tend to grow faster than the supply of food. Consequently, overpopulation would result in starvation and disaster if the rate of increase was not checked. Ricardo further developed the work of Malthus in his work Principles of Political Economy in which he formulated his iron law of wages, which said that because of the pressure of population growth and the excess of workers, wages would always be kept low. More workers meant lower wages, which in turn would cause wages to fall below the subsistence level and lead to problems. As the number of workers declined so the wages would increase, encouraging people to have larger families and the cycle would repeat itself. Ricardo added that government intervention through legislation of charities would only compound the situation. Both of these prediction proved unfounded. In 1859 the liberal English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) published his On Liberty. Mill argued that individuals should be absolutely free in all issues and that those freedoms should be protected from both the government and the masses. In many ways Mill proved to be ahead of his time, not only did he advocate liberalism, he also was a supporter of women’s rights. He even attempted to have women included in the voting reform bill of 1867, but failed. In his On the Subjection of Women, Mill claimed the differences between men and women were due to social practices. He added, if women had equal access to education, then they could be as successful as men. Early-nineteenth century liberals favored representative government, but they generally wanted property qualifications attached to the right to vote. This meant limiting the vote to well-to-do aristocratic landowners, substantial businessmen, and successful members of the professions. Some intellectuals and foes of conservatism felt that liberalism did not go nearly far enough. They called for universal voting right, at least for males. Many people who believed in democracy also believed in the republican form of government. They detested the power of the monarchy, the privileges of the aristocracy, and the great wealth of the upper middle class. French Utopian Socialism After 1815 Socialism was the new radical doctrine, especially in France Based on the changes created by: i) French Revolution ii) Industrial Revolution Argued liberalism was fragmenting society Believed government should: a) rationally organize the economy and not depend upon competition b) the poor should be helped and protected from the rich c) that the rich and poor should be almost economically equal d) private property should be strictly regulated by the government or it should be abolished and replaced with state ownership. This philosophy can best summed up in the words of one of its leading proponents Count Henri de Saint-Simon (17601825), “The age of gold is before us!” Saint-Simon stressed: a) the key to progress was social organization b) Aristocratic “parasites” should move over and make way for “doers,” the scientists, engineers, and industrialists Reformers Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)– developed utilitarianism – rightness should be measured by usefulness. He called for better laws for education, public health, and prisons. British cotton manufacturer Robert Owen (1771-1858) believed humans would be better off if they lived in a cooperative environment where everything was shared. He established such a thriving community at New Lanark, Scotland. But attempts to spread his utopian communities to the United States failed. Charles Fourier (1772-1838), described socialist utopian communities of 1,620 people on 5,000 acres called phalansteries. He believed marriage was prostitution, should be replaced with free unions and sexual freedom. Without funds his ideas remained untested. Frenchman Louis Blanc (1813-1882), was much more practical, The Organization of Work urged workers to take over the state. Blanc believed the government should set up factories (workshops) and guarantee full employment. Pierre Joseph Proudhon, wrote What is Property? His answer was that property was nothing but theft - profit stolen from the workers. His response terrified the July Monarchy of France and he was tried for subversion. Although he was acquitted Proudhon remained a spokesman for peasants and eventually became a leader of the French labor movement. Karl Marx showed some interest in Proudhon, but later he turned against him. One of the women utopian socialists was Flora Tristan (1803-1844). Tristan tried to unite socialism and feminism. She advocated absolute equality. By 1830 criticism of capitalism increased. Many believed that the government should tax income to distribute wealth and protect the liberties of the people. This was the era of Charles Dickens and Hard Times. The Industrial Revolution caused great and unprecedented wealth for some. It also created a society of “haves” and “have nots.” Some reformers believed the government should help the poor. While industrialists obviously disagreed, citing laissez-faire economic principles. Marxian Socialism In 1848 German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883) published a short treatise entitled The Communist Manifesto (co-authored with Friedrich Engels) which stated the ideas of revolutionary socialism. The means of production – land, capital, raw materials, and factories – should be owned and controlled by the society. This would allow the wealth to be equally distributed. Marx gave socialism a scientific basis. By observing the effects of the Industrial Revolution in Britain Marx was able to formulate his conflict theory. Marx believed that history advanced through conflict – economics being the major force. Production had created classes so who ever ruled production ruled society. Only when tools of production were developed were people exploited. Marx believed that the workers were paid only a fraction of the value of the goods they produced, the rest of the money was taken by the bourgeoisie. He added that the proletariat would seize the means of production from the bourgeoisie. “History of all previously existing society is the history of class struggles.” Marx united sociology, economics, and all human history by synthesizing French utopian models, English classical economics, and German philosophy. Marx had taken his ideas from the German philosopher Georg Hegel, who believed that history was “ideas in motion” with change coming from a conflict of two ideas. Each age produces a dominant set of ideas, which in turn create opposing ideas, which leads to a new synthesis. In 100 years the bourgeoisie had created colossal productive forces, now it was the turn of socialism. As Marx wrote at the end of the Communist Manifesto, “The proletariat have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES UNITE!” Marx claimed the validity of his theory rested on scientific proof as opposed to earlier theories, which rested on ethical ideas. Because Marxism was such a complex theory it proved very hard for the average worker to understand. But Marx was wrong his belief that working men did not have a country, and national loyalty would disappear with the development of the bourgeoisie. By the end of the century, Marxism was slowly disappearing as political theory. It would be thanks to Joseph Stalin in the twentieth century that Marxism would be revived. The remaining decades of the nineteenth century would prove that national sentiment was indeed a very powerful weapon shared by people all across Europe. Nationalism Nationalism was a second radical idea in the years after 1815, an idea destined to have an enormous influence in the modern world. Three points stand out: 1. Nationalism has normally evolved from a real or imagined cultural unity, or a community, manifesting itself especially in a common language, history, tradition, and territory. This community was the nation, and individual loyalty was to the nation. 2. Nationalists have usually sought to turn this cultural unity into political reality so that the territory of each people coincides with its state boundaries. This is what made nationalism so potentially explosive in central and eastern Europe after 1815. 3. Modern nationalism had its immediate origins in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. However, at the end of the eighteenth century the emphasis was on cultural rather than political identity. Political identity would be a manifestation developed during and after the Napoleonic era. Between 1815 and 1850, most people who believed in nationalism also believed in either liberalism or radical, democratic republicanism. Liberals and especially democrats saw the people as the ultimate source of all government. Yet such self-government would be possible only if the people were united by common traditions and common loyalties, and above all by a common language. Countries composed of multi-states, such as Germany and Italy, wanted national self-determination and autonomy rather than being part of someone else’s empire. However, this nationalism was seen as dangerous because it disrupted the balance of power. At the start of the nineteenth century nationalists found an ally in the liberals who believed everyone had a right to self-government. Early nationalists usually believed that every nation, like every citizen, had the right to exist in freedom and to develop its character and spirit. French historian Jules Michelet put it in The People in 1846, each citizen “learns to recognize his country...as a note in the grand concert.” Thus the liberty of the individual and the love of a free nation overlapped greatly in the early nineteenth century. Nationalism also had a negative side. Nationalists stressed the differences among peoples. German pastor and philosopher Johann Herder (1777-1831) emphasized the importance of the nation as being a result of the “world spirit.” This meant that identity could only be established by creating a national identity. Herder had argued that every people have their own particular spirit and genius, which it expresses through culture and language. Yet Herder could not define the uniqueness of the French, German, and Slavic peoples without comparing and contrasting one people with another. “They” were often the enemy. Herder did not elaborate on a plan to achieve his political program, but others did, especially with regards to Germany’s destiny. Czech nationalist historian Francis Palacky lauded the Czech people’s achievements, which he characterized as a long struggle against brutal German domination With this “we-they” outlook, it was all too easy for nationalists to add two other highly volatile ingredients: i) a sense of national mission. ii) a sense of national superiority. Early nationalism was thus ambiguous. Its main thrust was liberal and democratic. But below the surface lurked ideas of national superiority and national mission. Reforms and Revolutions In the early part of the nineteenth century, social, political, and economic pressure caused explosions in three countries: France, Greece, and Great Britain. France Louis XVIII’s Constitutional Charter of 1814 was basically a liberal constitution. a) economic and social gains gained during the revolution were protected b) intellectual and artistic freedom was permitted c) real Parliament was created The old aristocracy were a small minority, Louis’ successor, Charles X, changed the situation. His election was seen as a victory for the liberals. Upon gaining office Charles immediately revealed his rue agenda. He believed the French Revolution had been caused by Louis XVI making concessions, and he was determined not to yield to such pressure. On July 26, 1830 he issued the July Ordinances which: a) repudiated the Constitutional Charter b) reduced the electorate by stripping the wealthy middle class of its voting rights and wanted to re-establish the old order c) censored the press d) dissolved the legislative assembly These actions produced an immediate and violent response as barricades went up across Paris. The leaders of the July revolution appealed to Louis-Philippe, the duke of Orléans (r. 1830-1848), and cousin of Charles, to become a constitutional monarch. In “three glorious days” the government collapsed. Charles fled to Britain and Louis-Philippe was placed on the throne as the “bourgeois monarch.” LouisPhilippe accepted the Constitutional Charter of 1814, the red, white, and blue flag, financial qualifications for voting were reduced (but he only added about 100,000 voters since only the wealthiest could vote), and admitted he was merely “king of the French people.” Yet the working class of Paris who had helped in the overthrow of Charles X were still excluded from the political process. By the mid 1830s the situation had only deteriorated further. As public dissatisfaction increased so did the government’s response in censoring the press. Even the Chamber of Deputies was not exempt from problems. Two groups emerged. a) The Party of Movement, led by Adolphe Thiers, who wanted ministerial responsibilities, improved foreign policy, and a limited expansion in the number of voters. b) The Party of Resistance, led by François Guizot, who saw no need for any further changes. By 1840 the Party of Resistance dominated the Chamber of Deputies and worked with Louis-Philippe to pursue a policy favorable to the wealthier members of society. Belgium Inspired by the French Revolution the people of Belgium set out to claim their independence. The Congress of Vienna had added the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) to the Dutch Republic. In 1830 the Belgians rebelled against the Dutch and managed to persuade other European powers to acknowledge their independence. The new country would be a constitutional monarchy with Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as the king. Greece Since the 15th century the Greeks had been under Ottoman control. They had survived as a culture through language and their Greek Orthodox religion. In 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti led a revolt. The Great Powers refused to help because they saw revolution as a dangerous thing. But many Europeans saw the Greek’s struggle as a Holy struggle. The Russians supported the Greek Orthodox religion. English and Americans wanted to preserve classical Greek culture. The artist Lord Byron went to Greece “that Greece might still be free.” Delacroix immortalized the struggle with his art. In 1827 Great Britain, France, and Russia responded to popular pressure by calling for Turkey to agree to an armistice. When the Turks refused, their navy was destroyed at Navarino by the British, French, and Russian fleets. Russia declared war on Turkey and took over much of Romania. Poland During the 1830s the Poles also rose up in rebellion against the Russians. The Poles hoped to get assistance from Britain and France, neither of which materialized. The Poles were quickly and violently suppressed by the Russians, who set up a military dictatorship. Great Britain Eighteenth century British society had been stable. While society was dominated by the land owning aristocracy there was some social mobility. Civil rights were balanced with deference to one’s superiors. The French Revolution changed the political atmosphere, while the Industrial Revolution changed the social environment. Individuals who had prospered during the Industrial Revolution wanted a voice in politics and were unhappy with the corrupt electoral system. The Tory party - the aristocracy - became very fearful. The government passed the Corn Laws in 1815 to regulate the import of foreign grain, which caused serious shortages. The landowners profited from the shortages by inflating prices. The new regulations prohibited the import of corn unless domestic prices rose above 80 shillings a ton. This led to protests and demonstrations. In 1817 the government suspended the traditional right of assembly and habeas corpus. In 1819, the Six Acts were passed, the government now controlled a heavily taxed press and eliminated all mass meetings. The ‘Battle of Peterloo’ in 1819, demonstrated the government’s intent to stand firm. At St. Peter’s Field in Manchester the government used armed cavalry to disperse a crowd of almost 60,000 protestors. Eleven people were killed and hundreds wounded as the soldiers followed their orders with ruthless efficiency. In the wake of the massacre the government became even more repressive. The new commercial and industrial classes also wanted to be seen as equals of the old aristocracy. But many people called for liberal reforms. Inspired by the new wealthy the middle class became more determined. The Whig party, although also aristocratic, had always been more acceptable to the commercial and industrial class. The Reform Bill of 1832 was passed by the House of Commons, but defeated in the House of Lords. The Whigs persuaded the king to agree to make enough lords until it passed. The House of Commons now had the political power. Fifty six old “rotten boroughs” were eliminated and new industrial areas gained political voice. The number of voters increased by almost 100%. But the Reform Bill of 1832 was in reality a victory for the upper middle class. Further reform did little to help the situation. The Poor Laws of 1834 tried to make life so miserable for those not working that they would find work and become worthwhile members of society. Those out of work were forced into workhouses with deplorable conditions. In 1838 the “People’s Charter” demanded universal suffrage for all males. Thousands of people signed petitions in 1839, 1842, and 1848, all were rejected by parliament. Also in 1838 Richard Cobden and John Bright formed the Anti-Corn League. More and more people demanded no tariffs on corn. With the potato famine in Ireland Britain faced serious problems. Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel joined with the Whigs to repeal the Corn Laws in 1846 and allow the import of grain. In 1847 the Tories passed the Ten Hour Act, which limited the workday for young people and women to 10 hours a day in factories. In 1846, 1848, and 1851 the Irish potato crop failed again. The result was the Great famine. Over 1 million fled Ireland (primarily to the U.S.) another 1.5 million died. The Irish who could not pay rent were forced off their land, often by unsympathetic English landowners. Major reform was achieved without revolution or war. Revolutions of 1848 France Bad harvests increased prices, caused unemployment and movement to the cities. Over 25% of the people in Paris were unemployed and revolution was imminent. During the 1830s Louis-Philippe’s “bourgeoie monarchy” was characterized by stubborn inactivity. Louis-Philippe refused to make the necessary changes as opposition grew. Assemblies were outlawed so people met at banquets. On February 22, 1848, a huge banquet was planned, but the authorities banned it. The people attended anyway and soon barricades went up in Paris. Louis-Philippe called out the National Guard, but to no avail. Louis-Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, but it was too little, too late, the people were tired of a monarchy. A provisional government was established that included the socialist Louis Blanc. The Constituent Assembly started to draft a constitution for the Second Republic. a) every male was given the vote b) slaves in the colonies were freed c) abolition of the death penalty d) 10 hour work day for Paris Yet there were internal problems for the revolutionary coalition. The people elected a new Constituent Assembly with 500 moderate republicans, 300 monarchists, 100 radicals. One of the moderates was Alexis de Tocqueville, who wrote Democracy in America. Louis Blanc established national workshops to keep people employed and busy, but the cost became prohibitively expensive. The government closed the workshops on June 21. After three terrible “June Days” with the death of over 10,000 people, the republican army under General Louis Cavaignace stood victorious. The revolution had been a spectacular failure. The constitution, passed on November 4, 1848, called for a unicameral legislature elected every three years and an elected president. Elections were held in December. Charles Louis Napoleon (nephew of Bonaparte) was elected. The romanticized name of Napoleon and a desire for peace at any cost allowed him to win the election. Austria 1848 The revolution began in Hungary by people who were inspired by the events in France. The Hungarian liberal gentry under Louis Kossuth demanded: a) national autonomy b) full civil liberties c) universal suffrage Hungary was granted its own legislature, a separate national army, and control over her foreign affairs. Other groups in Austria began demanding rights. Habsburg emperor Ferdinand I promised reform to appease the revolutionaries. A disgusted Metternich fled in disguise to London. The monarchy was forced to abolish serfdom - Austria was overwhelmingly agricultural. The free peasants had no interest in politics and seemed like an ally for the government. The Habsburg monarchy exploited these problems and was soon in an armed struggle. When the urban poor revolted the middle class panicked. Emperor Ferdinand regained his courage, but his brother’s wife, archduchess Sophia, provided the rallying point. Ashamed of the emperor’s collapse when confronted with a “mess of students” she insisted Ferdinand abdicate in favor of her son Francis Joseph I (r. 1848-1916). Powerful nobles organized with Sophia to crush the revolution. Francis Joseph became emperor in December 1848. Nicholas I of Russia helped by sending 130,000 Russian troops to Hungary. The Habsburg ruled Hungary like a conquered territory. In the end the revolutions in Austria failed just like in other countries. Prussia The agricultural depression that swept through Europe during the 1840s caused social tensions in Prussia. These social tensions would lead to political changes. Prussia was different from other European states because there was the additional goal of unifying the 38 states, including Austria, into the confederation. After Austria, Prussia was the most influential German kingdom. The fall of LouisPhilippe encouraged the Germans to seek liberal reforms. When these were not granted a social war exploded. Frederick William IV promised a liberal constitution and the creation of a new German state. The workers wanted more the middle class wanted less. The workers demanded: a) universal suffrage b) minimum wage c) 10 hour work day d) a ministry of labor The various governments agreed to let the people vote to elect deputies for an allGerman assembly to meet at Frankfurt. The Frankfurt Assembly was dominated by the educated middle class. The Assembly was split into two groups: 1. Grossdeutsch (big Germany) wanted to include Austria in the creation of a greater Germany 2. Kleindeutsch (little Germany) wanted to exclude Austria. Austria decided the issue by voluntarily withdrawing. The crown and title “Emperor of the Germans” were offered to Frederick William IV, who abruptly refused it. Attempts to create a unified Germany had failed. Political and social upheaval and the Romantic movement caused the revolutions. Of all the major European powers only reforming Britain and Russia remained untouched. Italy The failure of the Italian revolutionary movements in the 1830’s only served to force those interested in unification to seek another avenue. The new leader of the risorgimento was a young Italian nationalist, Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872). Mazzini organized a group known as Young Italy in 1831 and in his The Duties of Man, Mazzini urged people to become more active in the quest for an Italian nation. Unfortunately for Mazzini, in 1848 several of the Italian states revolted. As the rebellion spread north rulers granted concessions, such as a constitution, to save themselves. Charles Albert (r. 1831-1849), king of Piedmont, declared himself leader of the war to free Italy from the Austrians. After a series of unsuccessful ventures Charles Albert was forced to return to Piedmont. However, he had learned a valuable lesson – to overthrow the Austrians he would need foreign help.