Download Ideologies and Upheavals, 1815-1850

Chapter 13
Romanticism
Ideologies and Upheavals, 1815-1850
During the eighteenth century a new artistic movement evolved. Classicism was a
set of artistic rules that were supported by the rationality of the Enlightenment. At
the end of the eighteenth century another, more spontaneous movement developed.
Romanticism was a revolt against the Enlightenment and Classicism. The
romantics did not ignore reason and rationality, but they tried to find a balance
between reason and intuition. The nineteenth century was marked by the Romantic
Movement.
Romanticism started in Germany and was characterized by unrestrained emotion
and spontaneity. In Germany, during the 1770s and 1780s they were called the
“Sturm and Drang” (storm and stress) group, because of their emotional intensity.
The Romantics tended to rebel against the expected norms of society. They grew
their hair long, grew beards, and wore outrageous clothes in an attempt to show
their individualism. They rejected materialism and were enchanted by nature,
which became a major a theme in their work. They saw modern industry as ugly
and the work of Satan. Fascinated by colors and diversity, they turned towards
writing history. They saw history as the art of change over time. They were
especially fascinated by the Middle Ages, which was seen as an era of great emotion
and faith.
Literature
In Germany, one of the most influential figures was Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
(1749-1832) who wrote The Sorrows of the Young Werther. (Werther was rejected
by a girl who did not love him, and in true romantic fashion he committed suicide).
The idea of an individual set apart from society and struggling against great odds
was a reoccurring theme for the Romantics. If the individual were to die, sacrificing
himself for a desperate cause, so much the better.
Other European writers, such as the brothers Grimm in Germany and Hans
Christian Anderson in Denmark, copied the romantic genre. The Scottish writer
Walter Scott’s classic tale Ivanhoe was a tale about medieval England and became a
best seller. Finally, reflecting the Romantic period’s attraction of the bizarre and
macabre was Mary Shelley’s famous tale Frankenstein.
The Romantics were also great poets. English poet William Wordsworth was
fascinated by nature and spent most of his time wandering around the English
countryside. Perhaps Wordworth’s most famous poem was “Daffodils.” Other
poets also contributed. Lord Byron not only wrote about romantic ideals, he
actually went to Greece to fight for Greek Independence.
In France, Victor Hugo's, Hunchback of Notre Dame championed romantic tenets.
Hugo equated freedom in literature with liberty in politics and society. Amandine
Dupin (George Sand) wrote over 80 romantic novels. The most famous and
controversial was the autobiographical Lelia, which dealt with the quest for sexual
freedom. The greatest Russian Romantic was the poet Pushkin.
Art and Music
Nineteenth century art was greatly influenced by the Romanticism. Art was a
reflection of the emotions of the artist. The greatest romantic painters were the
French artist Eugène Delacroix and Englishmen Joseph Turner and John
Constable. Constable painted Wordsworthian landscapes with humans as one with
nature. English painter John Constable said, “nature is spirit visible.”
Chopin, Beethoven, and Schumann transformed the small orchestra, adding wind,
percussion, and more brass and strings
The greatest composer was Ludwig van Beethoven, who was a child of the
Enlightenment. Beethoven lost his hearing but still composed “I will take fate by
the throat.” He never heard much of his greatest work, the Ninth Symphony.
Metternich and Conservatism
Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848, the cosmopolitan Metternich always
remained loyal to his class and jealously defended its rights and privileges to the day
he died. Metternich's commitment to conservatism was coupled with a passionate
hatred of liberalism. He blamed liberal revolutionaries for stirring up the lower
classes, which he believed desied nothing more than peace and quiet.
Liberalism appeared doubly dangerous to Metternich because it generally went with
national aspirations.
The idea of national self-determination was repugnant to Metternich. It not only
threatened the existence of the aristocracy; it also threatened to destroy the polyglot
Austrian Empire and revolutionize central Europe. The vast Austrian Empire of
the Habsburgs was a great dynastic state, but the very source of its strength, its size,
gave people a reason to fear the ideals of nationalism.
The Germans had supported and profited by the long-term territorial expansion of
Austria; yet they accounted for only a quarter of the population. The Magyars, a
substantially smaller group, dominated the kingdom of Hungary. The Czechs, the
third major group, were concentrated in Bohemia and Moravia. The various Slavic
peoples, together with the Italians and the Rumanians, represented a widely
scattered and completely divided majority in an empire dominated by Germans and
Hungarians. They were held together primarily by their ties to the Habsburg
emperor.
It was strong because of its large population and vast territories; it was weak
because of its many and potentially dissatisfied nationalities. Castlereagh even went
so far as to say that Austria was the "great hinge upon which the fate of Europe
must ultimately depend," a strangely prophetic statement that would prove true in
the next century.
Radical Ideas and Early Socialism
The years following the peace settlement of 1815 were years of profound intellectual
activity. Almost all of these basic ideas were radical. Revived conservatism, with its
stress on tradition, a hereditary monarchy, a strong and privileged land owning
aristocracy, and an official church, was reflected by radicals.
Liberalism
The principal ideas of liberalism were liberty and equality. First realized
successfully in the American Revolution and then achieved in part in the French
Revolution, this political and social philosophy continued to pose a radical challenge
to revived conservatism.
Liberalism demanded representative government as opposed to autocratic
monarchy. The idea of liberty also continued to mean specific individual freedoms:
freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom from
arbitrary arrest. In Europe only France and Great Britain, with its Parliament and
historic rights of English men and women, had realized much of the liberal program
in 1815. Elsewhere liberal demands were a call for freedom and revolutionary
change.
Liberalism faced more radical ideological competitors in the early nineteenth
century. Often called “classical” liberalism, its supporters resolutely opposed
government intervention in social and economic affairs. Opponents of classical
liberalism especially criticized its economic principles, which called for unrestricted
private enterprise and no government interference in the economy. This philosophy
was popularly known as the doctrine of laissez faire. The idea of a free economy
had first been persuasively formulated by Scottish philosophy professor Adam
Smith, whose Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776)
founded modern economics.
Far preferable were free competition and the “invisible hand” of the self-regulating
market, which would give all citizens a fair and equal opportunity to do what they
did best.
In the early nineteenth century, the British economy was progressively liberalized as
old restrictions on trade and industry were relaxed or eliminated. This
liberalization promoted continued economic growth in the Industrial Revolution.
Businessmen used the doctrine to defend their right to do exactly as they wished in
their factories. Labor unions were outlawed because they supposedly restricted free
competition and the individual’s “right to work.”
Socialism
The terrible social conditions created by the Industrial Revolution gave rise to the
ideology of socialism. The advocates of socialism were people who wanted to
introduce equality into society and who believed in the benefits of cooperation as
opposed to the competition of the capitalist system. Socialism would be the mother
of many and varied children, including Marxism and Communism.
During the Enlightenment socialists believed people could be made better if their
surroundings were improved. The utopian socialists were against private property
and the economic competition of the Industrial Revolution.
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) and David Ricardo (1772-1823) especially helped
make economic liberalism an ideology of business interests in many people’s minds.
Malthus, in his major work Essay on the Principles of Population, argued that
population grows at a geometric rate while the food supply increases at an
arithmetic rate. This means that the population would always tend to grow faster
than the supply of food. Consequently, overpopulation would result in starvation
and disaster if the rate of increase was not checked.
Ricardo further developed the work of Malthus in his work Principles of Political
Economy in which he formulated his iron law of wages, which said that because of
the pressure of population growth and the excess of workers, wages would always be
kept low. More workers meant lower wages, which in turn would cause wages to
fall below the subsistence level and lead to problems. As the number of workers
declined so the wages would increase, encouraging people to have larger families and
the cycle would repeat itself. Ricardo added that government intervention through
legislation of charities would only compound the situation. Both of these prediction
proved unfounded.
In 1859 the liberal English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) published his
On Liberty. Mill argued that individuals should be absolutely free in all issues and
that those freedoms should be protected from both the government and the masses.
In many ways Mill proved to be ahead of his time, not only did he advocate
liberalism, he also was a supporter of women’s rights. He even attempted to have
women included in the voting reform bill of 1867, but failed. In his On the
Subjection of Women, Mill claimed the differences between men and women were
due to social practices. He added, if women had equal access to education, then they
could be as successful as men.
Early-nineteenth century liberals favored representative government, but they
generally wanted property qualifications attached to the right to vote. This meant
limiting the vote to well-to-do aristocratic landowners, substantial businessmen, and
successful members of the professions. Some intellectuals and foes of conservatism
felt that liberalism did not go nearly far enough. They called for universal voting
right, at least for males. Many people who believed in democracy also believed in
the republican form of government. They detested the power of the monarchy, the
privileges of the aristocracy, and the great wealth of the upper middle class.
French Utopian Socialism
After 1815 Socialism was the new radical doctrine, especially in France
Based on the changes created by:
i) French Revolution
ii) Industrial Revolution
Argued liberalism was fragmenting society
Believed government should:
a) rationally organize the economy and not depend upon competition
b) the poor should be helped and protected from the rich
c) that the rich and poor should be almost economically equal
d) private property should be strictly regulated by the government or it should be
abolished and replaced with state ownership. This philosophy can best summed up
in the words of one of its leading proponents Count Henri de Saint-Simon (17601825), “The age of gold is before us!”
Saint-Simon stressed:
a) the key to progress was social organization
b) Aristocratic “parasites” should move over and make way for “doers,” the
scientists, engineers, and industrialists
Reformers
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)– developed utilitarianism – rightness should be
measured by usefulness. He called for better laws for education, public health, and
prisons.
British cotton manufacturer Robert Owen (1771-1858) believed humans would be
better off if they lived in a cooperative environment where everything was shared.
He established such a thriving community at New Lanark, Scotland. But attempts
to spread his utopian communities to the United States failed.
Charles Fourier (1772-1838), described socialist utopian communities of 1,620
people on 5,000 acres called phalansteries. He believed marriage was prostitution,
should be replaced with free unions and sexual freedom. Without funds his ideas
remained untested.
Frenchman Louis Blanc (1813-1882), was much more practical, The Organization of
Work urged workers to take over the state. Blanc believed the government should
set up factories (workshops) and guarantee full employment.
Pierre Joseph Proudhon, wrote What is Property? His answer was that property was
nothing but theft - profit stolen from the workers. His response terrified the July
Monarchy of France and he was tried for subversion. Although he was acquitted
Proudhon remained a spokesman for peasants and eventually became a leader of
the French labor movement. Karl Marx showed some interest in Proudhon, but
later he turned against him.
One of the women utopian socialists was Flora Tristan (1803-1844). Tristan tried to
unite socialism and feminism. She advocated absolute equality.
By 1830 criticism of capitalism increased. Many believed that the government
should tax income to distribute wealth and protect the liberties of the people. This
was the era of Charles Dickens and Hard Times. The Industrial Revolution caused
great and unprecedented wealth for some. It also created a society of “haves” and
“have nots.” Some reformers believed the government should help the poor. While
industrialists obviously disagreed, citing laissez-faire economic principles.
Marxian Socialism
In 1848 German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883) published a short treatise
entitled The Communist Manifesto (co-authored with Friedrich Engels) which stated
the ideas of revolutionary socialism. The means of production – land, capital, raw
materials, and factories – should be owned and controlled by the society. This
would allow the wealth to be equally distributed.
Marx gave socialism a scientific basis. By observing the effects of the Industrial
Revolution in Britain Marx was able to formulate his conflict theory. Marx believed
that history advanced through conflict – economics being the major force.
Production had created classes so who ever ruled production ruled society. Only
when tools of production were developed were people exploited. Marx believed that
the workers were paid only a fraction of the value of the goods they produced, the
rest of the money was taken by the bourgeoisie. He added that the proletariat would
seize the means of production from the bourgeoisie. “History of all previously
existing society is the history of class struggles.”
Marx united sociology, economics, and all human history by synthesizing French
utopian models, English classical economics, and German philosophy. Marx had
taken his ideas from the German philosopher Georg Hegel, who believed that history
was “ideas in motion” with change coming from a conflict of two ideas. Each age
produces a dominant set of ideas, which in turn create opposing ideas, which leads
to a new synthesis. In 100 years the bourgeoisie had created colossal productive
forces, now it was the turn of socialism. As Marx wrote at the end of the Communist
Manifesto, “The proletariat have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a
world to win. WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES UNITE!”
Marx claimed the validity of his theory rested on scientific proof as opposed to
earlier theories, which rested on ethical ideas. Because Marxism was such a
complex theory it proved very hard for the average worker to understand. But
Marx was wrong his belief that working men did not have a country, and national
loyalty would disappear with the development of the bourgeoisie. By the end of the
century, Marxism was slowly disappearing as political theory. It would be thanks to
Joseph Stalin in the twentieth century that Marxism would be revived. The
remaining decades of the nineteenth century would prove that national sentiment
was indeed a very powerful weapon shared by people all across Europe.
Nationalism
Nationalism was a second radical idea in the years after 1815, an idea destined to
have an enormous influence in the modern world.
Three points stand out:
1. Nationalism has normally evolved from a real or imagined cultural unity, or a
community, manifesting itself especially in a common language, history, tradition,
and territory. This community was the nation, and individual loyalty was to the
nation.
2. Nationalists have usually sought to turn this cultural unity into political reality so
that the territory of each people coincides with its state boundaries. This is what
made nationalism so potentially explosive in central and eastern Europe after 1815.
3. Modern nationalism had its immediate origins in the French Revolution and the
Napoleonic Wars. However, at the end of the eighteenth century the emphasis was
on cultural rather than political identity. Political identity would be a manifestation
developed during and after the Napoleonic era.
Between 1815 and 1850, most people who believed in nationalism also believed in
either liberalism or radical, democratic republicanism.
Liberals and especially democrats saw the people as the ultimate source of all
government. Yet such self-government would be possible only if the people were
united by common traditions and common loyalties, and above all by a common
language.
Countries composed of multi-states, such as Germany and Italy, wanted national
self-determination and autonomy rather than being part of someone else’s empire.
However, this nationalism was seen as dangerous because it disrupted the balance of
power. At the start of the nineteenth century nationalists found an ally in the
liberals who believed everyone had a right to self-government.
Early nationalists usually believed that every nation, like every citizen, had the right
to exist in freedom and to develop its character and spirit. French historian Jules
Michelet put it in The People in 1846, each citizen “learns to recognize his
country...as a note in the grand concert.” Thus the liberty of the individual and the
love of a free nation overlapped greatly in the early nineteenth century.
Nationalism also had a negative side. Nationalists stressed the differences among
peoples. German pastor and philosopher Johann Herder (1777-1831) emphasized
the importance of the nation as being a result of the “world spirit.” This meant that
identity could only be established by creating a national identity. Herder had
argued that every people have their own particular spirit and genius, which it
expresses through culture and language. Yet Herder could not define the
uniqueness of the French, German, and Slavic peoples without comparing and
contrasting one people with another. “They” were often the enemy. Herder did not
elaborate on a plan to achieve his political program, but others did, especially with
regards to Germany’s destiny. Czech nationalist historian Francis Palacky lauded
the Czech people’s achievements, which he characterized as a long struggle against
brutal German domination
With this “we-they” outlook, it was all too easy for nationalists to add two other
highly volatile ingredients:
i) a sense of national mission.
ii) a sense of national superiority.
Early nationalism was thus ambiguous. Its main thrust was liberal and democratic.
But below the surface lurked ideas of national superiority and national mission.
Reforms and Revolutions
In the early part of the nineteenth century, social, political, and economic pressure
caused explosions in three countries: France, Greece, and Great Britain.
France
Louis XVIII’s Constitutional Charter of 1814 was basically a liberal constitution.
a) economic and social gains gained during the revolution were protected
b) intellectual and artistic freedom was permitted
c) real Parliament was created
The old aristocracy were a small minority, Louis’ successor, Charles X, changed the
situation. His election was seen as a victory for the liberals. Upon gaining office
Charles immediately revealed his rue agenda. He believed the French Revolution
had been caused by Louis XVI making concessions, and he was determined not to
yield to such pressure. On July 26, 1830 he issued the July Ordinances which:
a) repudiated the Constitutional Charter
b) reduced the electorate by stripping the wealthy middle class of its voting rights
and wanted to re-establish the old order
c) censored the press
d) dissolved the legislative assembly
These actions produced an immediate and violent response as barricades went up
across Paris. The leaders of the July revolution appealed to Louis-Philippe, the
duke of Orléans (r. 1830-1848), and cousin of Charles, to become a constitutional
monarch.
In “three glorious days” the government collapsed. Charles fled to Britain and
Louis-Philippe was placed on the throne as the “bourgeois monarch.” LouisPhilippe accepted the Constitutional Charter of 1814, the red, white, and blue flag,
financial qualifications for voting were reduced (but he only added about 100,000
voters since only the wealthiest could vote), and admitted he was merely “king of the
French people.” Yet the working class of Paris who had helped in the overthrow of
Charles X were still excluded from the political process.
By the mid 1830s the situation had only deteriorated further. As public
dissatisfaction increased so did the government’s response in censoring the press.
Even the Chamber of Deputies was not exempt from problems. Two groups
emerged.
a) The Party of Movement, led by Adolphe Thiers, who wanted ministerial
responsibilities, improved foreign policy, and a limited expansion in the number of
voters.
b) The Party of Resistance, led by François Guizot, who saw no need for any further
changes.
By 1840 the Party of Resistance dominated the Chamber of Deputies and worked
with Louis-Philippe to pursue a policy favorable to the wealthier members of
society.
Belgium
Inspired by the French Revolution the people of Belgium set out to claim their
independence. The Congress of Vienna had added the Austrian Netherlands
(Belgium) to the Dutch Republic. In 1830 the Belgians rebelled against the Dutch
and managed to persuade other European powers to acknowledge their
independence. The new country would be a constitutional monarchy with Leopold
of Saxe-Coburg as the king.
Greece
Since the 15th century the Greeks had been under Ottoman control. They had
survived as a culture through language and their Greek Orthodox religion. In 1821
Alexander Ypsilanti led a revolt. The Great Powers refused to help because they
saw revolution as a dangerous thing. But many Europeans saw the Greek’s struggle
as a Holy struggle. The Russians supported the Greek Orthodox religion. English
and Americans wanted to preserve classical Greek culture. The artist Lord Byron
went to Greece “that Greece might still be free.” Delacroix immortalized the
struggle with his art.
In 1827 Great Britain, France, and Russia responded to popular pressure by calling
for Turkey to agree to an armistice. When the Turks refused, their navy was
destroyed at Navarino by the British, French, and Russian fleets. Russia declared
war on Turkey and took over much of Romania.
Poland
During the 1830s the Poles also rose up in rebellion against the Russians. The Poles
hoped to get assistance from Britain and France, neither of which materialized. The
Poles were quickly and violently suppressed by the Russians, who set up a military
dictatorship.
Great Britain
Eighteenth century British society had been stable. While society was dominated by
the land owning aristocracy there was some social mobility. Civil rights were
balanced with deference to one’s superiors. The French Revolution changed the
political atmosphere, while the Industrial Revolution changed the social
environment. Individuals who had prospered during the Industrial Revolution
wanted a voice in politics and were unhappy with the corrupt electoral system.
The Tory party - the aristocracy - became very fearful. The government passed the
Corn Laws in 1815 to regulate the import of foreign grain, which caused serious
shortages. The landowners profited from the shortages by inflating prices. The new
regulations prohibited the import of corn unless domestic prices rose above 80
shillings a ton. This led to protests and demonstrations.
In 1817 the government suspended the traditional right of assembly and habeas
corpus. In 1819, the Six Acts were passed, the government now controlled a heavily
taxed press and eliminated all mass meetings.
The ‘Battle of Peterloo’ in 1819, demonstrated the government’s intent to stand
firm. At St. Peter’s Field in Manchester the government used armed cavalry to
disperse a crowd of almost 60,000 protestors. Eleven people were killed and
hundreds wounded as the soldiers followed their orders with ruthless efficiency. In
the wake of the massacre the government became even more repressive.
The new commercial and industrial classes also wanted to be seen as equals of the
old aristocracy. But many people called for liberal reforms. Inspired by the new
wealthy the middle class became more determined. The Whig party, although also
aristocratic, had always been more acceptable to the commercial and industrial
class. The Reform Bill of 1832 was passed by the House of Commons, but defeated
in the House of Lords. The Whigs persuaded the king to agree to make enough
lords until it passed. The House of Commons now had the political power.
Fifty six old “rotten boroughs” were eliminated and new industrial areas gained
political voice. The number of voters increased by almost 100%. But the Reform
Bill of 1832 was in reality a victory for the upper middle class. Further reform did
little to help the situation. The Poor Laws of 1834 tried to make life so miserable for
those not working that they would find work and become worthwhile members of
society. Those out of work were forced into workhouses with deplorable conditions.
In 1838 the “People’s Charter” demanded universal suffrage for all males.
Thousands of people signed petitions in 1839, 1842, and 1848, all were rejected by
parliament. Also in 1838 Richard Cobden and John Bright formed the Anti-Corn
League. More and more people demanded no tariffs on corn. With the potato
famine in Ireland Britain faced serious problems.
Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel joined with the Whigs to repeal the Corn Laws in
1846 and allow the import of grain. In 1847 the Tories passed the Ten Hour Act,
which limited the workday for young people and women to 10 hours a day in
factories. In 1846, 1848, and 1851 the Irish potato crop failed again. The result was
the Great famine. Over 1 million fled Ireland (primarily to the U.S.) another
1.5 million died. The Irish who could not pay rent were forced off their land, often
by unsympathetic English landowners. Major reform was achieved without
revolution or war.
Revolutions of 1848
France
Bad harvests increased prices, caused unemployment and movement to the cities.
Over 25% of the people in Paris were unemployed and revolution was imminent.
During the 1830s Louis-Philippe’s “bourgeoie monarchy” was characterized by
stubborn inactivity. Louis-Philippe refused to make the necessary changes as
opposition grew. Assemblies were outlawed so people met at banquets. On
February 22, 1848, a huge banquet was planned, but the authorities banned it. The
people attended anyway and soon barricades went up in Paris. Louis-Philippe
called out the National Guard, but to no avail. Louis-Philippe abdicated in favor of
his grandson, but it was too little, too late, the people were tired of a monarchy. A
provisional government was established that included the socialist Louis Blanc. The
Constituent Assembly started to draft a constitution for the Second Republic.
a) every male was given the vote
b) slaves in the colonies were freed
c) abolition of the death penalty
d) 10 hour work day for Paris
Yet there were internal problems for the revolutionary coalition. The people elected
a new Constituent Assembly with 500 moderate republicans, 300 monarchists, 100
radicals. One of the moderates was Alexis de Tocqueville, who wrote Democracy in
America.
Louis Blanc established national workshops to keep people employed and busy, but
the cost became prohibitively expensive. The government closed the workshops on
June 21. After three terrible “June Days” with the death of over 10,000 people, the
republican army under General Louis Cavaignace stood victorious. The revolution
had been a spectacular failure.
The constitution, passed on November 4, 1848, called for a unicameral legislature
elected every three years and an elected president. Elections were held in
December. Charles Louis Napoleon (nephew of Bonaparte) was elected. The
romanticized name of Napoleon and a desire for peace at any cost allowed him to
win the election.
Austria 1848
The revolution began in Hungary by people who were inspired by the events in
France. The Hungarian liberal gentry under Louis Kossuth demanded:
a) national autonomy
b) full civil liberties
c) universal suffrage
Hungary was granted its own legislature, a separate national army, and control over
her foreign affairs. Other groups in Austria began demanding rights.
Habsburg emperor Ferdinand I promised reform to appease the revolutionaries. A
disgusted Metternich fled in disguise to London. The monarchy was forced to
abolish serfdom - Austria was overwhelmingly agricultural. The free peasants had
no interest in politics and seemed like an ally for the government. The Habsburg
monarchy exploited these problems and was soon in an armed struggle.
When the urban poor revolted the middle class panicked. Emperor Ferdinand
regained his courage, but his brother’s wife, archduchess Sophia, provided the
rallying point. Ashamed of the emperor’s collapse when confronted with a “mess of
students” she insisted Ferdinand abdicate in favor of her son Francis Joseph I (r.
1848-1916). Powerful nobles organized with Sophia to crush the revolution. Francis
Joseph became emperor in December 1848. Nicholas I of Russia helped by sending
130,000 Russian troops to Hungary. The Habsburg ruled Hungary like a conquered
territory. In the end the revolutions in Austria failed just like in other countries.
Prussia
The agricultural depression that swept through Europe during the 1840s caused
social tensions in Prussia. These social tensions would lead to political changes.
Prussia was different from other European states because there was the additional
goal of unifying the 38 states, including Austria, into the confederation. After
Austria, Prussia was the most influential German kingdom. The fall of LouisPhilippe encouraged the Germans to seek liberal reforms. When these were not
granted a social war exploded. Frederick William IV promised a liberal
constitution and the creation of a new German state. The workers wanted more the middle class wanted less.
The workers demanded:
a) universal suffrage
b) minimum wage
c) 10 hour work day
d) a ministry of labor
The various governments agreed to let the people vote to elect deputies for an allGerman assembly to meet at Frankfurt. The Frankfurt Assembly was dominated
by the educated middle class. The Assembly was split into two groups:
1. Grossdeutsch (big Germany) wanted to include Austria in the creation of a greater
Germany
2. Kleindeutsch (little Germany) wanted to exclude Austria.
Austria decided the issue by voluntarily withdrawing. The crown and title
“Emperor of the Germans” were offered to Frederick William IV, who abruptly
refused it. Attempts to create a unified Germany had failed.
Political and social upheaval and the Romantic movement caused the revolutions.
Of all the major European powers only reforming Britain and Russia remained
untouched.
Italy
The failure of the Italian revolutionary movements in the 1830’s only served to force
those interested in unification to seek another avenue. The new leader of the
risorgimento was a young Italian nationalist, Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872). Mazzini
organized a group known as Young Italy in 1831 and in his The Duties of Man,
Mazzini urged people to become more active in the quest for an Italian nation.
Unfortunately for Mazzini, in 1848 several of the Italian states revolted. As the
rebellion spread north rulers granted concessions, such as a constitution, to save
themselves. Charles Albert (r. 1831-1849), king of Piedmont, declared himself
leader of the war to free Italy from the Austrians. After a series of unsuccessful
ventures Charles Albert was forced to return to Piedmont. However, he had
learned a valuable lesson – to overthrow the Austrians he would need foreign help.