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APEH Chapter 4.notebook
October 03, 2014
Chapter 4
Netherlands
• The United Provinces of the Netherlands became independent after winning its war against Philip II of Spain in the 1580s. Spain did not recognize its independence until the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. Later in the 17th century France became its great rival, along with England at times.
• It was the only great power which was a republic. It was very decentralized, as each province was self­governing. There was absolute freedom of religion, despite the Calvinist majority, for Jews and Catholics.
• The Dutch Republic had an enormous overseas trading empire. Private companies colonized territories (New Netherland in North America, some Caribbean islands, northeastern Brazil, South Africa, Ceylon, and the East Indies) around the world for profit. Within Europe, the Dutch dominated shipping. They carried goods like textiles, grain, lumber, dried fish, and whale products between all European ports.
• The most important banks in Europe were in the Netherlands. The first stock market in the world was established in Amsterdam.
• The Netherlands was the most urbanized country in Europe, as most Dutch lived in cities. Its economy was dominated by trade, finance, manufacturing, and shipping. Dutch agriculture was very intensive and land was carefully managed, as much of it is below sea level. Its focus was on highly profitable pursuits like cattle (for cheese) and flowers.
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• The Dutch bourgeoisie will be great patrons of the arts. In contrast to the baroque art of Catholic monarchies, Dutch art of the 17th century will focus on the still­life, portraits of the bourgeoisie, landscapes, and morality. the most notable artists were Rembrandt van Rijn and Jan Vermeer.
England in the 17th century
• At the beginning of the century Elizabeth I was very popular and powerful, and she dominated Parliament. England had defeated its enemies and avoided religious wars.
• France at the beginning of the century had a weak monarchy. The religious wars had been devastating, and many nobles had private armies, as did the Huguenots.
• By the end of the century, however, the roles were reversed. England had become a parliamentary monarchy, while France had become an absolute monarchy.
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England
• James VI of Scotland of the House of Stuart succeeded Elizabeth I in 1603, becoming King James I of England. The Stuart kings of England and Scotland believed in the divine right of kings. They believed kings ruled by the grace of God, and that no human institution could limit royal authority. In England, however, Parliament and the people had certain traditional rights. Only Parliament had the power to tax. The English had the right to own property and to trial by jury.
• James I clashed with Parliament because he imposed taxes without parliamentary consent. He angered Puritans by making peace with Spain and because he insisted on retaining the episcopal hierarchy in the Church of England. He said hierarchy was a necessary principle in a monarchy. The King did agree with the Puritans on the need for an English translation of the Bible, and he sponsored what became known as the King James Bible.
• He was succeeded by his son, Charles I, in 1625. He also had a very elevated view of the role of the monarchy. Charles I was married to a French Catholic, who was allowed to practice her faith. This upset many Protestants, who suspected Charles I of being a crypto­Catholic.
• He ignored Parliament as much as possible, refusing to call it into session, and taxing the population without its consent.
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• In 1640 Charles I was forced to call Parliament into session to levy taxes to pay for a war. Scotland had rebelled because he had introduced an episcopal hierarchy in the Presbyterian Church. When Parliament met, it refused to disband, becoming known as the "Long Parliament." It asserted its exclusive right to tax and to meet at will. It also impeached and executed various royal and Church officials.
• In 1642 Charles I tried to disband Parliament by force. Parliamentary leaders escaped in time and raised their own army. English Civil War (1642­1646)
• The Civil War was a clash between the King and Parliament over the extent of their powers. It also was a clash over whether the Church of England would be Puritan, or whether it would have an episcopal hierarchy. • The King was supported by the Cavaliers, who were Anglican. Parliament was supported by the Roundheads, who were Puritans. The Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell and his fanatical New Model Army, won the Civil War. Charles I was captured, put on trial, and beheaded in 1649.
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• England became a republic for the only time in its history. It was known as a Commonwealth and was officially under the rule of Parliament. In reality it was a Puritan and military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, the Lord Protector. Cromwell invaded Scotland and Ireland to impose his rule on them as well. Most Irish were Catholic, but Catholic worship was banned and Catholics were prohibited from owning land, voting, or serving as public officials.
• The Puritans governed England according to biblical morality. Drunkenness, theater, and dancing were all banned. England had given up its monarchy and traditional liberties, only to have them replaced with an even harsher dictatorship.
• After Cromwell's death, Parliament began to negotiate a restoration of the monarchy with the exiled heir of the executed king. The Restoration under Charles II (r. 1660­1685) returned England to what it was before the Civil War. Public entertainment became legal. He had a Catholic wife, and was a crypto­
Catholic. He ruled as much as possible without calling Parliament into session and imposed taxes without parliamentary sanction.
• Charles II aligned England with Catholic France and fought a series of wars against the Protestant Netherlands, its rival in overseas trade. He even made a secret promise to Louis XIV that he would convert to Catholicism.
• Parliament was dominated by anti­Catholics, and it passed laws denying civil rights to Catholics. The Test Act required that every government officeholder be a member of the Church of England.
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• Charles II had no legitimate children, and so he was succeeded in 1685 by his brother, James, the Duke of York, who was Catholic and had a young, Catholic wife. James II's heir was his adult, Protestant daughter from his first marriage.
• As king, James II repealed the Test Act and granted absolute religious freedom, even to Catholics. These policies aroused much opposition from nobles and Anglican bishops. The king arrested some of these critics and began to rule like a tyrant. He was seen as a threat to traditional English liberties, and intent on restoring Catholicism.
• In 1688, upon the birth of his Catholic son, Parliament met and invited the King's son­in­law and daughter (William of Orange, stadholder of the Netherlands, and Mary) to "invade" England. James II and his wife and son fled to France and Parliament, declaring the throne vacant, declared William III and Mary II King and Queen of England.
• The Glorious Revolution (1688), the peaceful overthrow of James II by Parliament, marks the beginning of parliamentary sovereignty in England. William III and Mary II were monarchs through Parliament, not through divine right.
• James II's Catholic son and grandsons would remain in exile and continue claiming the throne. They made several attempts to retake the throne by force during the 18th century. They and their followers were known as Jacobites.
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• The English Bill of Rights (1689) limited the power of the king and reaffirmed traditional rights like the right to bear arms, trial by jury, and freedom of speech. Only Parliament could tax, and it would meet from then on in regular sessions. The King had to rule with the consent of Parliament. The Roman Catholic faith was banned.
• The Act of Settlement (1701) prohibited any Catholic or anyone married to a Catholic from assuming the throne. Since William and Mary and their heir Anne were childless, this law stated that the succession would pass to their nearest Protestant relative, the Elector­Prince of Hanover.
• The Act of Union (1707) merged England and Scotland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Their two Parliaments merged into a single Parliament.
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• Parliament was the ultimate sovereign, but it was not a democratic body. The House of Lords was unelected, and the House of Commons was elected solely by property owners. Some boroughs had very few voters, or even only one.
• Parliament was dominated by two parties. The Tories were the landowning nobility and favored a strong monarchy and the Church of England. The Whigs included urban commercial and manufacturing interests and favored a strong Parliament and tolerance for all Protestants.
• Even though most people could not vote, public opinion still played a role in British politics. People could demonstrate and criticize their leaders, as Britain had freedom of speech and of the press. • The British nobility controlled Parliament, and Parliament, not the King, imposed taxes, so everyone paid taxes. This meant the British government could pay its expenses, including for warfare. In the long run, this will make Britain stronger than France, where the nobility and Church were tax­exempt.
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France under Louis XIV (1643­1715)
• Louis XIV became king at age 5. His mother Anne of Austria was regent during his minority, and she appointed Cardinal Mazarin as chief minister. He continued Richelieu's centralizing policies. This triggered the Fronde (1649­1652), a series of rebellions led by nobles, parlements, and the bourgeoisie against the centralization of power. The Fronde eventually failed, and Louis XIV learned to fear Paris and its mob violence and that the nobility had to be controlled.
• Once Louis XIV reached adulthood he never appointed a chief minister and ruled France directly. He emphasized the divine right of kings in order to justify royal absolutism. He projected an image of power and glory through his image and his wars. He was known as the Sun King and for saying "I am the state," which meant he should have the monopoly on law, justice, and the use of force. In reality despite his aspirations there were many traditional institutions and rights (regarding taxation, tolls, customs barriers, local assemblies, and parlements) which limited his power. • France was Europe's most powerful and influential state during the reign of Louis XIV. It had fertile soil and many natural resources, skilled manufacturing, and a large army. Europeans copied its architecture, fashion, cuisine, manners, and literature.
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• Because of its size and luxury, the Palace of Versailles was a colossal stage upon which Louis XIV played his role as absolute monarch and projected an image of glory and power. The nobility was his audience for the theatrical display of his daily life. He thereby domesticated them as they no longer had real responsibilities or power. They gambled, hunted, went to parties and performances, and competed for the king's attention. The cost of this life kept them in debt. It worked as a political strategy, and Louis XIV was able to dominate the parlements completely. The Estates­General never met during his long reign.
• His economic policies were designed to stimulate trade and manufacturing under state direction. His finance minister, Jean­Baptiste Colbert (1619­
1685), established factories, built roads and canals, encouraged overseas colonization, and regulated trade through tariffs. The name for an economic policy of government­sponsored manufacturing and high tariffs on imports is mercantilism.
• Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and Huguenots could no longer practice their faith in France. This was done to enhance centralization (one king, one faith, one law) of power and as an anti­Dutch measure. Most Huguenots fled to the Netherlands or certain German states.
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• Louis XIV fought four major wars to expand French territory, achieve secure borders, and add to his personal glory.
• War of Devolution (1667­1668) Louis XIV claimed the Spanish Netherlands as his wife's inheritance. England and Sweden joined the Netherlands and Spain to fight the French invasion. In the Treaty of Aix­la­Chapelle France gained some Flemish territory.
• Franco­Dutch War (1672­1678) Charles II of England established an alliance with France, allowing Louis XIV to invade Flanders once again. Spain and Austria joined the Netherlands against France and England. This was the beginning of the rivalry between Louis XIV and William III of Orange. In the Treaty of Nimwegen France obtained the Franche­Comte from Spain and some more Flemish territory.
• War of the League of Augsburg or Nine Years' War (1688­1697) Louis XIV claimed the Palatinate and invaded the Holy Roman Empire. The League of Augsburg (England, Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, Austria) was formed to resist his invasion. William III became King of England during this war. In the Treaty of Ryswick France obtained parts of Alsace.
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• Wars after Westphalia were fought by small, professional armies (with the exception of Prussia and its conscripted army). War was seen as a normal tool of policy, and not as something to be avoided. Peace was merely a pause between wars, not something that had to be maintained. Wars were not terribly destructive, and rarely affected civilians. Wars did not bring revolutionary change or political upheaval, and rivals did not try to change each other's governments. Wars were fought exclusively for territorial or dynastic reasons. Alliances were never permanent, but rather shifted according to national interest.
• Louis XIV's ambition to dominate Europe led to most other countries forming alliances to stop him. This illustrates the principle of balance of power. That is, the other countries could not allow any single country to dominate Europe, so they joined forces to prevent that.
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• War of Spanish Succession (1701­1714) The inbred and severely deformed Charles II, King of Spain, died childless in 1700. The original arrangement was that an Austrian Hapsburg relative would take the throne upon his death. Charles II, however, wrote in his will that his heir would be his Bourbon grandnephew, Philip, the Duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV.
• Upon the death of Charles II, Philip went to Madrid and became King Philip V, and his grandfather Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands. Britain, Austria, and the Netherlands joined to stop France's expansionism. They thought that if Louis XIV controlled the Spanish throne, it would upset the balance of power in Europe.
• The war went badly for France, as it had financial and military difficulties, and Britain won major victories.
• In the Treaty of Utrecht Philip V was allowed to remain as King of Spain, starting the Bourbon dynasty in Spain, but he had to renounce any claim to the French throne. Spain lost all of its Italian possessions(Milan, Naples, and Sicily to Austria and Sardinia to Savoy) and the Spanish Netherlands (to Austria, and thereafter known as the Austrian Netherlands). Spain lost Gibraltar to Britain, and it remains a British colony. Britain also won the right to some trade with the Spanish American colonies, including the lucrative slave trade between Africa and America.
• Louis XIV died in 1715, leaving a legacy of debt due to very expensive buildings and wars. He was succeeded by his 5­year old great­grandson, who became Louis XV.
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