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Peak Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 3(1), pp.1-7, February, 2015 https://www.peakjournals.org/sub-journals-PJSSH.html ISSN 2331-5792 ©2015 Peak Journals Review The concept of reconciliation (Sulh) in Islamic family law and matrimonial dispute settlement practice in Nigeria Olufadi Lanre Abdul Malik* and Farah Salwani Binti Muda Accepted 04 November, 2014 This research looks or investigates the principles and rules relating to the matrimonial dispute settlement under the Shari’ah and how they are practicing matrimonial dispute settlement (sulh) in Nigerian or Customary Law. Its legalities, conditions, and principles were looked into and causes of matrimonial dispute in Nigeria were mentioned in the paper. Classical works on the matrimonial dispute settlement was studied in this work in contrast with Nigerian Customary system. However, the primary objective of this paper is to examine the concept of matrimonial dispute settlement (sulh) according to fundamentals of Shariah from the perspective of the Qur’an. Islamic matrimonial amicable reconciliation practice in Nigeria (ADR) and it types were also looked into. The research was conducted through qualitative method; that is, Nigeria constitution, Qur’an and hadith, journals, articles, conferences proceedings, and Islamic textbooks by respected scholars of Islam. The research was concluded by suggesting the way out of the problems. Kew words: Islam, matrimonial dispute, settlement practice, reconciliation, Nigeria. Faculty of Law and Shariah, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM), Malaysia. *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] INTRODUCTION Islam is a religion of peace and way of life (Al-Qur'an-Al Baqara 2:208). That is why it introduces in an amicable way or introduces the rule of law to settle matrimonial disputes and ensure the smooth running of our worldly affairs; it has encouraged people to meditate reconciliation among the couple by been rewarded for peaceful dispute and conflict settlement. However, the systems of arbitration and reconciliation or amicable settlement (sulh) have a long history within Arab and Islamic societies and have their roots in pre-Islamic Arabia period. Sulh is the preferred result and process in any form of dispute resolution. Furthermore, arbitration is favored to adjudication in Islamic jurisprudence. In tribal and Islamic cultures, the overarching objective in conflict settlement is collectivity. Definition of terms and concept of Ṣulh as aternative dispute resolution (ADR) Ṣulh literally means mediation, negotiation, conciliation, and compromise which easily fit within the definition of ADR. ADR is generally defined as those dispute resolution processes which encourage disputants to reach resolution either on their own or with the help of third party neutral that facilitates the disputants in doing so. Technically, it means “to cut off a dispute” or “to end a dispute” either directly or with the help of neutral third person or third party. In another way, it means to settle discord between two people in an amicable way: (a) Matrimonial: means married or state of being married. (b) Dispute: means to contend in agreement or to argue against something maintained, upheld, or claimed by another. (c) Nigeria: means a country in western Africa, south of country of Niger. Official name: Federal Republic of Nigeria. (d) Islamic law: simply means Shariah Law. (e) Ṣulh: means mediation, conciliation, negotiation and compromise. (f) Al-tahkim ortahkim: means arbitration. Malik et al. 2 CONCEPT OF (SULH) AND ISLAMIC MATRIMONIAL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT IN THE QUR’AN disputes. Allah the Sublime advises the following procedure in the context of marital conflicts: Islam encourages every Muslim to do mediation between the husband and wife (couple) in a conflictual situation in order to restore peace, affection, harmony, and understanding between the couples. Parents or family are primarily required firstly to mediate between the couple in order to save their marriage or avoid divorce. However, according to Rashied and Khutuba (2010), the Islamic concept of Sulh (reconciliation) is a process rather than an event. It is a process which needs to be nurtured over some periods of time in order for it to procure its fruits of justice and peace. Notwithstanding the difficulty and arduousness of the reconciliation process, it is a process which is extolled in Islam and as such should be encouraged and supported by each and every conscientious believer. No reconciliation process can be perfect but its contradictions must not be overlooked and they should be continually challenged (Rashied and Khutuba, 2010). But in order for a reconciliation process to be sustained, it requires magnanimity on the part of all parties. Such a view is supported by the most primary source of Islamic guidance, the Glorious Quran, where it positively affirms the concept in Qur‟an thus: “If you fear that husband and wife may break up, then appoint one arbitrator from his family and one from hers; if the couple wishes to reconcile, then Allah will indeed bring about their reconciliation: For Allah has All-knowing and All-aware” (Qur‟an 4:35). اس ْ صدَقَ ٍة أ َ ْو َم ْع ُروفٍ أ َ ْو ِإ ِ َّصالَحٍ بَيْنَ الن ٍ ال َّ َخي َْر ِفي َك ِث َ ير ِ ّمن نَّجْ َواهُ ْم ِإال َّ َم ْن أ َ َم َر ِب ع ِظي ًما ِّ ت ِ ضا َ ف نُؤْ ِتي ِه أَجْ ًرا َ َو َمن يَ ْفعَلْ ذَلِكَ ا ْبتَغَاء َم ْر َ َاّلل ف َ س ْو “In most of their secret talks there is no good; but if one exhorts to a deed of charity or justice or conciliation between men, (secrecy is permissible): to him who does this, seeking the pleasure of Allah, We shall soon give a reward of the highest (value)” (Al-Qur'an-Surah Al-Nisa 4:128). Another verse: ... “Reconciliation is always the best option and selfishness is ever-present in the human soul; but you should be magnanimous and act benevolently towards others and always remain conscious of God, for He is indeed aware of all that you do” (Qur'an 4: 128). The Islamic equivalent of reconciliation is the Arabic word Sulh. Sulh is an important term in both the vocabulary of the Qur‟an and in Islamic jurisprudence. The word itself is used to refer both to a ritualized process of restorative justice and peacemaking and to the actual outcome or condition sealed by that process (Rashied and Khutuba, 2010). According to Islamic law, the purpose of Sulh is to end conflict and hostility among Muslims so that they may conduct their relationship in peace and harmony (Sabtu, 2010). The second context in which the concept of sulh is used in the Quran is in relation to resolving matrimonial Another verse: ً َو ِإ ِن ْام َرأَة ٌ خَافَتْ ِمن بَ ْع ِل َها نُش ص ِل َحا بَ ْينَ ُه َما ْ ُع َل ْي ِه َما أَن ي َ ُوزا أ َ ْو ِإع َْراضًا فَالَ ُجنَا ْ َح اّلل َكانَ ِب َما َّ س الشُّ َّح َو ِإن تُحْ ِسنُواْ َوتَتَّقُواْ فَإِ َّن ُّ ص ْل ًحا َوال ُ ُ ُض َرتِ األَنف ِ ْص ْل ُح َخي ٌْر َوأُح ُ ير ً ت َ ْع َملونَ َخ ِب “If a wife fears cruelty or desertion on her husband's part, there is no blame on them if they arrange an amicable settlement between themselves; and such settlement is best; even though human inner-selves are swayed by greed. But if ye do good and practice self-restraint, Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do” (Qur‟an 4:128). “If two parties of the believers fall into a quarrel, then make peace and reconciliation between them; but if one of them transgressors beyond all bounds against the other, then fight against the transgressor until it complies with Allah‟s command; but if it complies then make peace between them and reconcile them on the basis of justice and fairness; for Allah loves those who are just and act equitable” (Qur‟an 49:9). From all verses of the Quran that were quoted above, we would categorize sulh into two ways: the first one is tahkim, which is a form of reconciliation or amicable composition, and is not binding on the parties, while the second is based on the arbitral-award which is binding on the parties because the parties authorized the arbitrator to judge, whose judgment must be of binding character. “However, no doctrine or school”, says Abdul Hamid ElAhdab, a leading authority on the law of tahkim (sulh), “had adopted a clear attitude in this respect and there are numerous opinions in each of the four great schools of Sunni Muslim (Hanafi, Hanbali, Shafih, and Malik). Hanafi opinion is that arbitration that is very close to compromise (Syed, n.d.). Shafih also hold a similar view; that the arbitral award is binding only if the parties agree. Thus arbitration is like conciliation. Followers of this view hold that if an arbitral award is regarded as binding, this would challenge the authority of the state, that of the judge and ultimately of the Imam (Sultan) (El-Ahadb, 1998). Hanbalis and Maliks hold the view that the decision of an arbitrator is binding unless it contains flagrant injustice (El-Ahadb, 1998); however, the arbitration laws of the Muslim countries make the arbitral awards binding if it is field in Shariah Court. However, the prophet Muhammad had recognized arbitration. In one reported case, he appointed an Peak J. Soc. Sci. Humanit. arbitrator and accepted his award. He also advised the tribe of Bani Qarnata to have a dispute arbitrated (ElAhadb, 1998). Beside these verses, Hadiths of the Prophet (SAAS) are loud in supporting peaceful settlement. The Prophet says: “He who makes peace (sulh) between the people by inventing good information or saying good things, is not a liar” (Al-Bukhariyy 3:533). From the above hadith we should know that lie is only permitted during sulh in order to achieve sulh between disputants (Couple). The prophet also mentioned the rewards waiting for those who establish sulh. “Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah‟s Apostle said: „there is a sadaqa to be given forever joint of the human body (which number 360); and for every day on which the sun rise, there is reward of a sadaqa for the one who establishes sulh and justice among people” ( Al-Bukhariyy 3:533). Beside these verses, Umar bin Khattab the second caliph of Islam wrote a letter to Abu Musa Al-Ashari on the letter„s appointment as a qadi contains many rules relating to the administration of justice. One of these rules deals with sulh: الصلح جائز بين المسلمين إال صلحا حرم حالال أو أحل حرام "All types of compromise and conciliation among Muslims are permissible, except those which may harm anything which is halal and a halal as haram" (Syed, n.d). In the above letter, the part relating to haram and halal is a compromise and is based on a saying of the prophet: “if somebody innovates something which is not in harmony with the principles of our religion, that thing is rejected” (Syed, n.d). CONCEPT OF MEDIATION CUSTOMARY LAW UNDER NIGERIAN Customarily, Nigerian elders are responsible for reconciliation and mediation of any loggerheads within the family, community, and society in order to be at peace and harmony at all times. It is a proverb in Yoruba custom that (Agba kiwa loja, kile odaworo) which simply means, in the presence of elders, there must not be any turbulent and catastrophic situation in the house. For that proverb, when there is any single misunderstanding between husband and wife, the elder always strive into settle because the eldest of the family would be held responsible and blamed for negligence if he or she failed to settle the conflict quickly. If there is marital conflict, the elders of the family will come up for the mediation in order to save and restore affection and love within the two parties. Customary law in Nigeria Nigeria is made up of different and several ethnic groups 3 and cultures out of which each made its own varieties of customary law. Ethnic customary is conceptualized as the indigenous law that applies to the number of different groups in a society or community. However, customary law is a system of law that reflects and reveals the culture, custom, value and habits of the people whose activities are regulated by their custom. The subject matter is mainly dominant in the personal and family aspect such as marriage, divorce, guardianship and custody of children, conflict mediation within the family, and succession. In Nigeria, system of customary law is different and varies from one society to another society; that is, Igbo culture varies from Hausa culture while both are different from Yoruba culture and vice-versa. As a matter of fact, Nigerian customary law is unwritten, uncertain, and difficult to ascertain. Nevertheless, it is flexible and has the capacity to adapt the social and economic changes without losing its character. It also has capacity to settle any rancor and conflict within the family without filing the case in the court of law. Customary law is usually enforced in customary courts where most cases are presided over by non-legal trained personnel (Obilade, 1979). Nigerian Customary Law may apply and be adopted in some situation and conditions as it provide that: “A custom may be adopted as part of the law governing a particular set of circumstances if it can be noticed judicially or can be proved to exist by evidence. The burden of proving a custom shall lie upon the person alleging its‟ existence” (Evidence Law, 1973). ARBITRATION (SULH) SYSTEM IN NIGERIA Arbitration as a mechanism of settlement of dispute has been with Nigerians from time immemorial as it has been with mankind from the beginning of its creation. The existence of the method as a means of dispute resolution is based on the fact that conflicts and controversies are inevitably a daily occurrence in society from time immemorial; this may be in the form of personal disagreements, religious crises, political, ethnic, marital disputes, chieftaincy matters, land and community boundary dispute and even economic conflict and which from time are settled one way or the other through an organized traditional dispute resolution mechanism like arbitration. Historically therefore, arbitration and other mechanisms of dispute settlement is one of the processes used in dispute resolution in most ethnic groups in Nigeria like many other communities in African countries (Awala, 2005). Thus, arbitration is a traditional arrangement in Nigeria for settlement of matrimonial dispute and abiding by the judgment of selected persons in the community, on disputed matters as opposed to reference to court for litigation. This can be seen in the words of Ezediaro (1971) where he said; “Arbitration as a method of settling dispute is a tradition of long standing in Nigeria. Referral of a dispute to one or Malik et al. more layman for decision has deep roots in the customary law of many Nigerian communities. Such a method of dispute resolution was only a reasonable one, for the wise men or the chiefs who were the only accessible judicial authorities. This tradition still persists in certain villages and communities, despite the centralized legal system and the attendant efforts at modernizing and reform of legal system.” Islamic arbitration It is instructive to note from the onset and as rightly observed by Abdul (1981) that there is no evidence of judicial pronouncement confirming the application of Islamic arbitration mechanism as a method of disputes resolution in Nigeria, neither was there any on its validity or even the legality or otherwise. This is because there has not being any reference of disputes relating to Islamic customary arbitration to court for adjudication or any dispute relating to or connected with or arising from arbitration. The fact however remains that Islamic legal system is one of the three recognized and enforceable legal system in Nigeria and evidence abound in Shariah of arbitration as one of the practical method of dispute settlement. Historically, it is established that in the early stage of Islam and after the death of Prophet Mohammed (PBUH), arbitration was employed in dispute resolution in Islam. The practice of customary Islamic arbitration in the Northern Nigeria has it legal basis and foundation from the primary source of law; that is, the Holy Quran, the Sunnah of the Holy prophet Muhammed (PBUH), Ijma’a, Qiyas, Ijitihad, Istihisan, etc. More importantly, the Nigerian Muslims particularly the North where Muslims are predominant, follow the Maliki school of jurisprudence and where arbitration is regarded as Tahkim or sulh as a form of contract where by parties agree to bring any dispute/conflict or disagreement arising from the terms of a contractual agreement before hakim or arbitration for settlement (Abdul, 1990). THE ORIGIN OF THE NIGERIAN LEGAL SYSTEM The Nigerian legal system comprises a number of different layers of law, being based significantly on English law whilst incorporating also local Customary and Islamic (Shari‟a) law. Customary law in particular adds a great deal of complexity to the legal system on account of the fact that it is not uniformly applied; rather, the customs which are recognized as law are often recognized only at the localized geographic level and do not apply to all groups throughout the country. In short, the customary law in one region will differ from that elsewhere. Nigeria‟s periods of military rule have further complicated the legal system because of the Decrees 4 and Edicts which were issued during these periods. Many of these items of legislation remain in force despite the fact that they conflict with other laws, indeed often with the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999. Establishing the customary law existence and application of Customary law is, as stated above, recognized by the Nigerian legal system. The question of what constitutes the applicable Customary laws in relation to a particular matter is often, however, a difficult question. If a party wishes to invoke the application of a rule of customary law in court proceedings, Section 14(1) of the Evidence Act 1990 requires the party first to establish the existence and content of the customary rule as a matter of fact which is to be proved by appropriate evidence. Appropriate evidence will include the following sources of customary law: opinions of persons having special knowledge of native law and custom; opinions of native chiefs or imam; any books and any manuscript. An exception is created for those rules of customary law which have been recognized and applied by Courts of superior or coordinate jurisdiction so often that the Court asked to apply the relevant rule now would be justified in assuming that the persons or class of persons concerned in the area look upon the relevant rule as binding in relation to circumstances similar to those under the Court‟s consideration (see Section 14(2) of the Evidence Act 1990). By this latter approach, a Court is able to take “judicial notice” of the existence of a particular customary law without the need for its proof by specific evidence. ISLAMIC MATRIMONIAL PRACTICE IN NIGERIA DISPUTE SETTLEMENT Dispute according to advanced learner‟s dictionary, is an argument or a disagreement between two people, groups or countries; discussion about a subject where there is disagreement. However, Islamic law considers marriage „an important contract, a strong bond, a challenging commitment in which both parties find mutual fulfillment and self-realization (Najim-din, 2000). This is because marriage in Islam is regarded first and foremost as a religious act, an act of responsible devotion. But Islam does not make the contract absolutely indissoluble. If it cannot work well for any valid reason, it may be dissolved (Abdallati, 1998). Therefore, in every form of Islamic matrimonial dispute settlement in Nigeria, the possibility of breakdown of the marriage can lead to divorce. ARBITRATION (ṢULH) PRACTICE UNDER NIGERIA LAW The practice of Ṣulh in matrimonial dispute settlement Peak J. Soc. Sci. Humanit. under Nigeria law can be divided into three namely: 1. Ṣulh process of marriage dispute settlement under customary court in Nigeria. 2. Ṣulh of customary marriage by the Customary and Area Courts in Nigeria. 3. Ṣulh under Islamic Law Marriage. 5 amicable settlement of family dispute. Except in cases of matrimonial misconducts, which are considered grave (e.g. adultery or pregnancy by a wife for another man, attempt of one spouse to kill another), most matrimonial feuds are settled at this level. Reconciliation (Ṣulh) of customary marriage by the customary and area courts in Nigeria Reconciliation (Ṣulh) process of marriage dispute under customary court in Nigeria First of all, customary laws can be defined as follows: Customary law is a practice which by common adoption and long unvarying habits, have come to have the force of law. It is also a rule which in a particular community have from long usage obtained the force of law. It can also be defined as a body of customs, accepted by members of the community as binding upon them. Furthermore, it is and organic or living laws of the indigenous people, which regulate their lives and transactions. Finally, it is the Usage or practice of the people, which by common adoption and acquiescence and long and unvarying habits, have become compulsory and have acquired the force of law with respect to place, or the subject matter to which it relates (Oyakhiromen, (2009). Generally, in all disputes at customary law, the customs place a lot of emphasis on negotiation and arbitration but more importantly in disputes relating to family matters which includes marriage. Marriage is considered a very important social institution upon which the web of societal associations is built in most customs in Nigeria. It is certain that customary marriages are dissoluble under the law. Divorce at customary law may be effective without judicial intervention (Oyewo, 2009). The general conception of marriage at customary law is that family is a corporation made up of people of common descent, and marriage is a compact between two families (Akintude, 1997). The family head and the principal member as well as friends of a couple and their religious leaders are all key players in any reconciliatory efforts in estranged marriages in Islam or customary law (Akintude, 1997). Because of the power or respect exhibited by such people, their reconciliatory efforts often yield positive results leading to a reunion of the couple. The basic nature of customary law and practice is the concept of yielding and compromise. Most Nigeria families adhere to the concept of good relationship thus they will try their best to resolve the problem among themselves within the family without seeking outside assistance. Upon the failure of intra family mediation, the dispute may be reported to the formal or institutional mediation like mosque (imam), the Oba (King) in Yoruba cultures who is seen as the father of all. He adjudicates with the aid of his chiefs and endeavors to bring the feud to an Customary marriages are conducted under the various customary laws applicable in each locality. The customary and area courts are generally established for the administration of customary law which includes customary marriages. While these courts are designated area courts in the southern states, they are designated area courts in the northern states (Obilade, 1979). The various customary and area courts laws regulate the proceedings of these courts (Obilade, 1979). These laws contain identical provisions about the jurisdiction of the courts. For instance, the Lagos State law (Obilade, 1979) provides in section 16 (1) read with second schedule part I that the civil jurisdiction of customary courts includes „unlimited jurisdiction in matrimonial causes and other matters between persons married under customary law or arising or connected with a union contracted under customary law (Identical provision, 1968). The courts in the exercise of their power therefore adjudicate over matrimonial causes. Section 18 of the law provides that „in civil cases and matters, a customary court may promote reconciliation among the parties thereto and encourage and facilitate amicable settlement thereof (Ambali, 2003). While these courts have the power to embark on reconciliatory mission, it is only when parties are properly before them that this duty can be performed. Reconciliation under Islamic law marriage Marriage in Islamic Law may be dissolved by divorce in the case of a permanent marriage or waiver of the remaining period in the case of a temporary marriage (Ambali, 2003). Dissolution of the Islamic marriage can take different forms (Qur‟an 2:228). From the principles governing the dissolution of Islamic marriages, there are vestiges of an attempt at the entrenchment of a reconciliatory process. Two forms of reconciliation can be identified: Reconciliation by revocation of divorce Talaq is one of the processes of dissolving an Islamic marriage. The husband in Moslem marriage to sever the union adopts it. It involves making a legal statement by which the divorce is pronounced with the requisite intention. It is a requirement of the law that it should not Malik et al. be pronounced in a manner that does not leave room for reconciliation. The man should therefore control his emotion when pronouncing it. One of the attributes of talaq Sunnah is that it allows for reconciliation. The woman waits for three periods of cleanliness after a revocable divorce (Talaq raj’iy). During this period of iddah, the man can rescind his decision to divorce the woman (Customary Courts Law, 2003). The condition for the exercise of this right by the husband is that he did not make the separation total at the time it was pronounced. Reconciliation through the iddah period Iddah refers to the waiting period during which women, who are separated from their husbands as a result of death or divorce, count the prescribed days and month of menstrual periods or periods of cleanliness. It is that period within which women should not enter into a new marriage contract till the stipulated period expires (AlQur‟an 65:1). The first purpose of iddatul talaq is reconciliation (Babatunde, 2003). The essence is to afford the estranged couple a period for peaceful and amicable reconciliation. Such reconciliation may be initiated by the parties themselves or by close associates and relatives. A party is therefore afforded the opportunity to change his mind. In order to ensure that the iddah period affords an opportunity for reconciliation, Islamic law stipulates that the woman in the man‟s house and under his care must observe the iddah (Al-Qur‟an 65:2) Causes of marital discord in Nigeria The causes of matrimonial dispute in Nigeria can be divided into three namely: 1. Causes of matrimonial dispute from the husband. 2. Causes of matrimonial dispute from wife. 3. Causes of matrimonial dispute from both. Causes of matrimonial dispute from the husband The following comprises the behaviors exhibited by the husband which in turn leads to matrimonial or marital dispute: (a) Oppression and rough treatment. (b) Refusing to maintain her financially. (c) Injustice among wives in polygamous family. (d) Breaching pre-marital agreements. (e) Abandonment. (f) Financial problem. Causes of matrimonial dispute from wife (a) Being disobedient to and garrulous with her husband. 6 (b) Being negligent in carrying out domestic chores and duty to her husband. (c) Going out without her husband‟s permission. (d) Lack of domestic skill. (e) Lack of proper dress or dress up alluring for her husband. Causes of matrimonial dispute from both (a) The nature of the husband‟s or wife„s work. (b) Difference in personal and career goal. (c) Unnecessary jealousy and suspicion. (d) Transgressing against the matrimonial rights of one another. (e) Unfriendly to cleanliness and adornment by either of the spouse. (f) Child-rearing issue. (g) Religious and cultural deference. (h) Sexual incompatibility. CONCLUSION In conclusion, Sulh simply is a means of settling or reconciliation of marital discord between husband and wife. For this reason, Sulh was very much applicable in Nigeria, as it reduces the number of divorce in Nigeria and it is usually applied before the court of law. However, Sulh (settlement) or reconciliation can be a divorce at any time, or agreement on mutual ferns between the two parties. The needed thing and important need of such is to make sure that both parties do not end up harming each other. Therefore, when sulh (reconciliation or amicable settlement) is at best to divorce, we will take sulh in position of divorce and when it is in position of keeping them together, sulh will work in making sure that they stick together as a united family. For this reason, Islamic family law and matrimonial dispute settlement practice in Nigeria depends on the best option of the sulh in each case. Furthermore, it is by advised that parents and family in Nigeria should quickly rush or strive into the mediation between the husband and wife before the situation should be getting out of control. The couple also should be quick in informing their parents immediately one of them notice any strange character and behaviour from the other, after he or she has being trying his or her effort to settle or reconcile the rift. It is better for the husband to report his wife‟s mistakes to her parents instead of husband‟s parent to make things easier and better, likewise the wife in order to avoid separation between the couples. However, couples should not put in their minds that they cannot solely manage their crisis without others intervention as recommended by Almighty Allah, and it is the best reconciliation from Allah rather than taking yourself to the court. Peak J. Soc. Sci. Humanit. REFERENCES Abdallati (1998). A man perfects half his religion when he marries; for the other half, he must place is trust in Allah‟ (Hadith). Abdul RD (1981). Islamic History, Islamic Publication Bureau Lagos, Pp. 100-101. Abdul RD (1990). Nigeria, Iksan Islamic Publication. p. 371. 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