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BRITISH
AND
INSECTS
HOW
TO
THEM
KNOW
BY
BASTIN
HAROLD
WITH
36
PLATES
TWELVE
GO.
METHUEN
"
ESSEX
STREET
LONDON
LTD.
W.G.
Published
First
in
79/7
61 1
PREFACE
I^HE
r
JL
of this littlebook
aim
introduction
It has
been
penned
naturalist,whose
habits
of
chief
is to
far in his
groups
"
G.
H.
edition
of
whose
work,
may
be
consulted
student.
Dr.
"
"
the
with
(which
Natural
History")
It is to
be
form
chief
of
men
ledge"
know-
is
reasons
"
outline
adopted
from
in
articles
whose
an
{scienceinto
The
etc.
to
the
Encyclopaedia Britannica,"
and Life,"
: their Structure
"
Insects
David
hope
Therefore
the
120
page
Carpenter,
and
Insects
indicate
orders, families,genera,
Professor
"
to
relationshi
inter-
working
"
him.
guide
printed on
their
cannot
a
to
separated by
are
classification"
current
made
and
structure
record
pursuit without
been
insects
and
the
whose
systematist,
naturalist
the
of classification
attempt has
the
of the
discover
insects.
British
standpoint of
the
lies with
interest
But
why
from
more
provide a popular
of
study
livingthings,than
object
advance
the
to
is to
advantage
Sharp's
a
should
hoped, however,
that
be
"
the
serious
volumes
two
part of
also
by
The
read
those
on
Cambridge
and
who
reread.
may
be
INSECTS
BRITISH
vi
induced
by
perusal
a
the
await
still
if
account,
I
wish
T.
C.
reproduce
Histories
and
(from
and
appears
to
my
who
C.
Habits
")
Plate
the
veriest
the
tyro
his
on
own
well.
and
friend
Rev.
the
to
me
correct
indebtedness
my
for
Jack
book,
common
emendations.
acknowledge
E.
with
many
helped
several
my
on
honestly
M.A.,
suggested
to
that
thanks
my
so
mence
com-
content
discoveries
work
will
to
pages
rest
of
make
to
D.Sc.,
also
have
Messrs.
which
offer
and
proofs,
I
he
Fowler,
Canon
the
hope
only
to
not
investigation,
reasonably
may
will
life-histories
The
species
following
the
insects
of
study
booklore.
of
"
their
Insects
photograph
to
permission
Their
:
of
the
to
Life-
May-fly
IV.
H.
B.
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
I.
II.
INSECTS
GENERAL
IN
FISH
i
-
INSECTS,
EARWIGS,
COCKROACHES,
AND
-
ALLIES
THEIR
-
III.
BOOK-LICE,
STONE-FLIES,
17
-
MAY-FLIES,
AND
DRAGON-FLIES
31
-
IV.
THRIPS,
BUGS,
APHIDES,
SCALE
AND
INSECTS
43
-
V.
SNAKE-FLIES,
ALDER-FLIES,
LACEWINGS,
AND
SCORPION-FLIES
55
-
VI.
BEETLES
62
-
-
VII.
MOTHS,
CADDIS-FLIES,
BUTTERFLIES
AND
-
VIII.
TWO-WINGED
FLIES
FLEAS
AND
94
-
IX.
ANTS,
WASPS,
BEES,
AND
106
KINDRED
THEIR
79
-
OUTLINE
CLASSIFICATION
OF
BRITISH
INSECTS
INDEX
-
-
-
-
-
120
-121
LIST
ILLUSTRATIONS
OF
I.
Metamorphosis
of
II.
Metamorphosis
of
III.
Common
Tettix
Earwigs
Dragon-fly
Mask"
Dragon-fly
"
Bush
hopper
Grass-
Cheep
House-
"
18
-
of
Tip
"
Meadow
A
"
"
lapponica
Ectobia
8
-
bipunctatus
"
May-fly"
"
Puss-moth
Lesser
"
IV.
Frontispiece
-
and
cricket
Mole-cricket
Dragon-fly
with
Nymph
Nymph's
Mask"
"
tended
ex-
32
-
V.
Shield-bug
"
VII.
Alder-fly
IX.
Wing
of
moth"
X.
Larva
and
of
XI.
"
Willow-stem
of
Hooks
wasp
Ichneumon
Wasp
or
-
Wing
"
-
and
Larva
"
or
Marble
Long-
-
-
98
-
Ant
"
Saw-fly
and
Cocoon
"
94
Gall-wasp
"
"Worker"
80
Pupa-
Daddy
"
Sheep-tick"
"
Midge
by
Solitary Wasp
Bee's
on
"
"
of Hawk-
Emperor-moth
Crane-fly
62
-
Hawk-moth"
Retinaculum
"
Ked
"
-
of
Parts
Crane-fly
"
galled
"Nest
XII.
Blow-fly
Drone-fly
"
of
Pupa-skin
Female
and
"
56
-
Water-beetle
Hawk-moth
Poplar
skin
legs
Hawk-moth
50
Caddis-fly"
"
"
Mouth
Caddis-fly"
Centrotus
"
-
beetle, Male
46
-
-
Timberman-beetle
"
Frenulum
-
Snake-fly
"
Stone-fly
"
Worm
of
"
Scale
Scorpion-fly
"
Stag-beetle
Glow-
"
Currant
Lacewing-fly
VIII.
tipularius
Cuckoo-spit"
"
Insects
Brown
"
Neides
Water-scorpion
"
"
Cuckoo-spit
cornutus
lineavis
"
laniarius
Capsus
VI.
Ranatra
"
"
Digger"
tary
Soli-
106
INSECTS
BRITISH
BRITISH
INSECTS
TO
AND
KNOW
HOW
THEM
CHAPTER
INSECTS
I
GENERAL
IN
\
T)ROBABLY
insect
JL
put
in
see
we
who
tortoise
for
words,
have
laid
down
is
dogs,
and
monkeys
and
don't
when
used
definite
time
in
the
as
all
crabs,
and
less
by
common
for
that
been
insect,
1
he
Also
called
the
the
of
class,
or
Thus,
when
in
first
of
a
that
"
i.e.,
"
with
more
At
vast
"
one
group
animals,1
centipedes,
nowadays,
Gnathopoda
(" six-footed")
naturalist
place
much
it is reserved
the
Hexapoda
name
Arthropoda
But
naturalists,
among
the
life.
insect
insect,
realize.
"foot-jawed
or
forms
alternative
means
of
a
Cats
"
an
term
lobsters, spiders, ticks,
familiar
given.
the
people
reported
:
here's
has
sense,
is
follows
this
that
railway
classifying
He
as
members
particular section,
the
is
many
the
consent
which
has
dogs, but
Gnathopoda,
including
many
is
than
it covered
known
somewhat
fact
of
to
ourselves
the
necessity
freightage.
scientific
its
meaning
the
find
of
an
asked
were
heard
law
The
count."
we
know
we
might
we
has
of
the
that
if
but
;
with
purposes
to
to
one
into
faced
was
believe
us
difficulty. Everyone
porter
a
when
conception
our
of
most
speaks
the
of
creature
jointed
feet."
an
in
BRITISH
2
INSECTS
legs,a distinction which at once
crabs, lobsters,spiders,ticks,centipedes,etc.,
six
questionhas
Here, then,
c*urt.
which
is only one
their six-footedness
So
before
that
well
shall do
insects
as
The
the
discuss
to
consider
"
(" to
insect
cut
viz.,the head,
are
insects
see
characters
many
all other
animals.
insects in detail,we
of
brieflythe peculiarities
"
from
is derived
the
Latin
verb
"),and is very appropriate,since
body is divided into three sections
"
the
thorax, and
the
abdomen.
These
always obvious, especiallyin young
and
shall
as
caterpillars
grubs ; but we
in these cases
the tripartite
even
plan is
such
already sketched
reached.
But
not
later that
revealed
British
upon
into
typicalinsect's
parts
among
based.
of
class.
a
name
insecure
we
be
may
separate insects from
to
serve
out
foundation
sure
a
of insects
knowledge
our
which
have
we
puts
when
Each
out,
as
it were,
and
waiting to be
is
life-history
final stage of the
of the three
main
sections
the
of the
body is made up of rings or segments. In the
head
always, and often in the thorax, these are so
intimatelyfused togetherthat the lines of juncture are
insect's
obliterated ; but in the abdomen
of
most
practically
tke segments
can
usually be distinguishedwithout
portant
difficulty.This segmentation of the body is an imto support the view
point,because it serves
held by scientific men
that insects have descended
now
from worm-like
whose
ancestors
creatures
body was
composed of a simple head-lobe followed by a series of
nearly identical rings,each of which carried a pairof
l"comotor
feet."
This
appendages or
idea, once
details
of insect
firmly grasped, explains many
that might otherwise
structure
difficult to comprehend.
prove
It will help us, for instance,to understand
"
"
INSECTS
GENERAL
IN
3
jaws," of which there
is reason
for thinking
three distinct pairs. There
are
that these three pairsof mouth-parts trace their origin
of appendages which
to
a
corresponding number
of the
the
head-lobe
belonged to segments behind
to have
Nature, in fact,seems
early ancestral stock.
telescoped" the parts, with the result that the
several
of the modern
insect includes
"head"
rings,
or
quite distinct therefrom in its
segments, that were
remote
progenitors. Possibly these archaic beings
developed an appetitefor harder foods than they had
the
insect's
mouth-parts,
or
this
as
"
"
erstwhile
room
eaten.
for doubt
Be
that
certain
it may,
of their
there
seems
no
body-ringswere
mediate
speak, into the im-
pushed graduallyforward, so to
neighbourhood of the mouth, and that the
turned
wards,
inappendages carried by these rings were
that each pair could be used for nippingand
so
biting. This is why the above-cited group of animals
foot(including insects)is called Gnathopoda, or
jawed."
of an
In the case
or
insect,such as a cockroach
a
cricket,which subsists upon solid food, the positionof
There is
the mouth-parts is not difficult to make
out.
first a kind of plate,called the upper
lip,or labrum.
in the middle
This is hinged to the head
line,and
it are
the three
behind
pairs of jaws, or foot-jaws,
termed in the order of their arrangement the mandibles,
The mandibles
the first
maxilla,and the second maxilla.
are
powerful nipping organs, speciallydesigned for
The
maxillae
breaking up hard or tough substances.
much
delicate structures, and
of both pairs are
more
the food finely,
to mince
or
to pass
probably serve
the opening
suitable fragments into the mouth
i.e.,
which leads to the gullet. Unlike the mandibles,each
"
"
BRITISH
4
in
INSECTS
piece, the maxillae retain their
primitivejointedcharacter, being severallycomposed
lobes.
basal parts and
two
of two
Moreover, each
maxilla carries a little feeler,termed
a
palpus. The
first maxillae are always separate, but the basal parts
less closely
or
of the second
pair are generallymore
this reason
naturalists usually refer to
For
united.
the lower lip,or Idbium.
The
as
them
masse
en
only
here is a
other mouth-part that need be mentioned
the inner,or front,side of the
kind of skinny fold on
the tongue, linguaor hypoas
labium, which is known
which
of
is
one
pharynx.
student
would-be
The
of insects should
form
a
clear
picture of the relative positionsoccupied by
these mouth-parts, and familiarize himself with their
He
will then
be able readilyto
technical names.
appreciatethe nature of the changes, or modifications,
fit insects to partake of different kinds of food ;
which
for the above
generalizeddescriptionapplies only to
insects of the mandibulate
or
bitingtype, and there
feed either wholly or in part on
kinds which
are
many
liquids. Some suck nectar from the flowers. Others
the
piercethe skins of plants or animals and extract
methods
of feeding obviously
Such
blood.
or
sap
demand
specialadaptationsof the mouth-parts,and in
shall see
how
subsequent chapters we
marvellously
mental
these
have
been
addition
effected.
the
of an
mouth-parts, the head
The latter
insect carries eyes and a pair of antennae.
often "feelers," used
to explore
are
by their owner
foreignobjects; but in many insects the antennae are
of smell,while
undoubtedly the chief seat of the sense
other
well.
The
senses
as
possibly serve
they may
In
diverse
forms
to
of
the
antennae
in
different
kinds
of
INSECTS
insects
suggest that
IN
GENERAL
5
their functions
may
be
almost
kinds of eyes
have
two
Insects may
equallyvaried.
simple and compound. Each simple eye, or ocellus,
is a small polishedlens set above a cup-shaped retina,
Certain
with the brain.
which is connected
by nerves
have
little groups of
insects (e.g.,
a
caterpillar)
young
"
these eyes
if they are
each
on
side of the head
all,the
; but
in the
adult,
ocelli
usuallyoccupy a
has
central position. A bee, a wasp,
or
a
dragon-fly,
its
three of these eyes arranged in a triangleupon
able to judge,the ocelli are
brow.
So far as we
are
and
are
probably more
exceedingly short-sighted,"
serviceable in distinguishing
lightfrom darkness than
in forming images. The
compound eyes, of which
each
adult insects have
most
on
a
pair situated one
The
side of the head, are
organs.
very marvellous
surface
layer,or cornea, is composed of numerous
facets,or separate lenses,connected with the brain by
It is
mechanism.
an
extremely complex nervous
possibleby the aid of the microscope to photograph
an
object,such as a postage stamp or the flame of a
of an insect's eye ;
candle,through the isolated cornea
this is done, we
and when
obtain a multiplex picture
of the object one
image, in fact, for every facet in
the cornea.
This interesting
experiment led certain
of the early naturalists to conclude that the compound
of separate images to the
eyes present a multitude
present
at
"
"
insect's brain.
number
would
In the
be
case
of
some
hawk-moths
the
something like 27,000 for each eye!
Of what use
this amazing portraitgallerycould be to
the creature
concerned, no one
attempted to explain.
need not pass in review
We
all the learned disputations
to which
the problem of insect vision has given
rise. Suffice it to say that the theoryof a multiplex
BRITISH
6
INSECTS
It is now
believed,for
image has been discarded.
good and sufficient anatomical reasons, that each facet
in the brain not a complete picture,
of the eye registers
but merely the small part of the picturewhich happens
of the lens,and that
to be exactlyoppositethe centre
in the retinal
all these fragmental images combine
regionof the eye. A mosaic pavement, composed of
numberless
piecesof stone or marble in close contact,
helps us to grasp the idea. Indeed, we may take it
as
highly probable that an insect's visual perception
of an
object does not differ greatlyfrom our own,
although we know very little concerning the actual
and extent
of any insect's sight.
power
it is joined by a
Behind
the insect's head, to which
slender
neck," is the thorax, which often appears to
be one
piece, but is, in reality,composed of three
rings,or segments, termed pro-,meso-,
closelyfitting
metathorax
and
respectively.Each
segment of the
carries a pair of jointedlegs, which
thorax
vary
greatly in form in different kinds of insects. In
almost
instance, however, the five principal
every
The
be easilydistinguished.
parts of each leg may
haunch, or coxa, fits into a socket in the thorax ; then
which
is
follows a small jointcalled the trochanter,
"
sometimes
divided
into
two
;
after
this
comes
the
thigh,or femur ; then the shin,or tibia; and finally
consist of from one
to
the foot,or tarsus,which
may
five joints,
the usual number
being five. The last,or
distal joint of the tarsus, is usuallyfurnished with a
these technical
It is worth while fixing
pairof claws.
terms
firmlyin the mind, ibecause they have a much
definite meaning than
more
possible English
any
equivalents.The tarsus of an insect,for example, is
foot in the ordinary
something very different from a
"
sense
of the word.
"
BRITISH
8
the
hindmost
The
latter is made
segments,
form
the
a
of which
For
the
more
tip of
another.
"
that
so
to
the six
the
identification
their
the
part, however,
most
the abdomen
to
body the abdomen.
of rings or
a varying number
often fused togetherand
are
the
less flexible
or
Since
attached
of
up
modified,
difficult.
of
section
some
otherwise
INSECTS
be
series,thus
moved
legs of
thorax, the
an
from
adult
abdomen
is
segments
permitting
one
point to
insect
are
be
must
all
scribed
de-
legless; but it frequently carries appendages,
which
probably represent the paired limbs
that were
of the
the posteriorsegments
present on
wormlike
certain of
ancestral
stock.
Indeed, among
the lowliest existinginsects we
shall see
that the
abdominal
In
appendages still assist locomotion.
insects
and
May-flies)the
(e.g.,cockroaches
many
bears
or
three,
extremity of the abdomen
two,
antennae-like
termed
cerci,"which
appear
processes,
be
to
olfactory.
perhaps tactile or
sense-organs
find that
is
the
tip of the abdomen
Finally, we
the
usually adapted to meet
requirements of the
In the female
insect there is
reproductive processes.
often an elaborate
egg-layingapparatus, or ovipositor.
We
kind of mental
have now
constructed
a
key to
the outward
of an insect.
form
It remains
to be said,
however, that the visible crust, or cuticle, of the
as
"
"
"
"
creature
the
word.
is not
its true
It consists
"
of
skin
"
in the
strict
sense
of
stance,
peculiarnon-livingsubhorn-like
but chemically quite
in appearance,
distinct from
horn, termed chitin. This is excreted by
the underlying layer of living cells which
form
the
true
insect
has no
outer
skin, or epidermis. The
Its soft tissues are
bony skeleton.
supported and held
together by this outer layer,or exoskeleton, to which
a
IL
EMPTY
EGG-SHELLS
COCOON
ON
BARK
X
EMPTY
LARVA
OR
CATERPILLAR
PERFECT
METAMORPHOSIS
INSECT
OF
PUSS-MOTH
PUPA-SKIN
INSECTS
muscles
also the
chitin is often
; but
armour
the
are
IN
attached.
layer
is
In
9
adult
insects the
thick, hard plates,like
pillars,
insects, such as cateryoung
parent.
thin, flexible,and transvery
deposited
in many
GENERAL
as
explanation is the
in which
insects
breathe.
no
manner
They have
lungs,nor is their blood pressed into service to carry
to the tissues.
Atmospheric air passes into
oxygen
the body through small openings called
spiracles,"
of the
of which may
be seen
some
along the abdomen
poplar hawk-moth, whose
photograph is reproduced
After enteringthe spiracles,the air
Plate IX.
on
circulates through a
of minute
tubes, or
system
the
insect's living
tracheae, which
ramify among
and
the oxygen
for
tissues,
supply to them
requisite
the various vital processes.
The air-tubes,
or tracheae,
formed
are
by an in-pushing of the outer skin, or
epidermis, and their inner wall is supported by a
of chitin.
an
Thus, when
spirallycoiled thread
insect moults
(we shall see
shortly that this is a
while growth is proceeding)it
frequent occurrence
discards
not
only its crust, or exoskeleton, but the
liningof its tracheae as well.
point
Another
that
calls
for
"
With
space
food
internal organs
of the insect we
have not
deal.
shall find much
Since, however, we
the
to
for
their
of insects
thought in the behaviour
individual
and
habits, parental activities,
apparent
in surmounting the difficultiesof their everycuteness
day
well to state that these creatures
life,it seems
endowed
with a highlydeveloped nervous
are
system,
which
differs in important respects from
that of a
vertebrate
In
animal.
its more
simple, ancestral
form, the insect's central nerve-cord
was
composed of
"
two
INSECTS
BRITISH
10
distinct
threads
ventral, wall
of
the
running within the lower, or
body its location being thus
"
it,as is the case
digestivecanal, not above
with a fish,a reptile,
In each
a
bird, or a mammal.
the
twin
threads
were
swollen, forming
segment
tuted
paired knobs, or ganglia; and each ganglion constiof
brain
which
a kind
governed the affairs of
its own
immediate
little concerned
surroundings,but was
with those of neighbouring segments, albeit a
certain amount
of nervous
exchange would take place
to insure
perfect co-ordination of the various bodily
functions.
So, at least, we
figure the nervemay
mechanism
of the primitive insect ; and
even
to-day
modern
the same
principleobtains,although in most
insects the mechanism
itself has been greatlymodified,
of the originally
porated.
separate ganglia being incormany
One
called by courtesy
the
such
mass,
It is
brain," is found in the front part of the head.
with
connected
the eyes and the antennae,
by nerves
and
exercises
kind of controllinginfluence where
a
concerned.
movements
of the legs and
wings are
walk or flyin an
Yet a brainless insect can
aimless,
below
the
"
"
"
erratic
which
manner,
because
stimuli
send
to
the
the
actual
muscles
motor
of
the
nerves,
legs
and
ganglia in the thorax ; it can also eat if
food be placed in contact
with its mouth-parts,the
from the latter and their
reason
being that the nerves
palpi are connected with a ganglion(next behind the
brain)situated beneath the gullet.
In view
of these facts,it is scarcely surprisingto
learn that insects are
True,
lacking in intelligence.
of the more
to
some
highly organized kinds appear
remember," and to profitby experience to a limited
wings, go
to
"
extent
;
but in most
of their actions insects
are
mani-
festlyenslaved
is
instinct
working
we
in
by
the
do
not
11
impulses of
know, but
numberless
on
ways
instruction
Without
GENERAL
IN
INSECTS
instinct.
What
we
see
any
may
summer
opportunity for
or
it
day.
imitation,
of intricate tasks for their
perform all manner
ference
their offspring's
own
or
good. The only possibleinis that each succeedinggenerationof insects
ery,
machininherits from its parents a self-acting
nervous
comparable to an elaborate piece of clockwork,
wound
ments
ready to perform its destined moveup and
The release
the spring is released.
soon
as
as
of the insect appears
to be
of the spring in the case
effected by some
simple stimulus,due either to internal
know
of which
next
to nothing.
external causes,
we
or
In this way
the wheels
set
are
going, so to speak,
insects
and
the
inherent
marvellous
whole
sequence
of the
creature's
skilfulness is reeled off.
the
growth and
development of insects. With few exceptions,insects
of some
In the case
lowlykinds, the young,,
lay eggs.
when
they hatch, are miniature reproductionsof their
parents. They simply increase in size as they grow
in the vast
from youth to maturity. But
majorityof
insects growth and
or
development involve a more
less marked
The
form-change, or metamorphosis.
growing insect,in fact,casts its outer cuticle at stated
intervals in its life-history
instances each
; and in most
succeeding moult renders it less like its pristineself
like its adult forbears.
and more
Take, for example,
We
must
the cockroach
newly
turn
now
and
hatched
its parents, but
more
attention
the mole-cricket.
insect
has
noticeable
much
of
to
In each
the
same
case
form
the
as
wings. These organs
growth proceeds,becoming more
after each
moult, but remaining
is destitute
develop graduallyas
and
our
BRITISH
12
INSECTS
until the cuticle has
functionless
been
cast
for the last
Indeed, until the final or adult stage of the
is reached, the wing-rudiments lie within
life-history
time.
of the
pockets
scale
chitinous
life we
of insect
outer
find still more
uninitiated
The
crust.
Higher in the
morphoses.
strikingmetafail to
would
connect
of the dragon-fly
sluggish,mud-coloured
young
with the alert and resplendentwinged being by which
it was
begotten. Highest of all,we find such insects as
which
bees, and two-winged flies,
butterflies,
begin life
as
a hungry caterpillar,
grub,or maggot, pass through
food is taken, and
a
no
period of quiescencewhen
then
undergo a final moult before reaching sexual
the wing-rudicases
ments
maturity. In these last-named
within little pockets or in-pushings
lie hidden
of the true skin or epidermis until the quiescentstage
of development is reached
at the period of the
; but
moult, they are withdrawn,
penultimate,or last-but-one,
and
at its conclusion
are
plainlyvisible beneath the
newly-formed cuticle or exoskeleton.
the
Several
insects
When
in
convenient
different
there
is
usuallyreferred
leaves
the egg
no
to
terms
are
used
to
describe
stages of their
metamorphoses.
is
quiescent period, the creature
as
a
nymph from the time when it
until it becomes
adult.
But
when
the
subsequent to hatching, exhibits three
life-history,
first
strongly contrasted
stages, the insect is known
as
a
larva,then as a pupa, and finally
as
an
imago,or
The
adult.
term
is applied to any
larva," which
that differs markedly from
animal
its parents,
young
is in practice often discarded
in favour
of a more
the larva is soft
expressive substitute. Thus, when
and cylindrical,
with pairsof short,stumpy
prolegs
certain of its hinder segments, it may
on
properlybe
"
"
"
BRITISH
14
from
the flowers
; the
from
their adult
forms
INSECTS
grub is exempt from all
self-effort by the instinctive provision made
by its
of its community.
In
parent, or by adult members
view of facts such as these, and because every animal
is seen
the particularniche which
it
to fit accurately
of existence, it is scarcelysurprising
occupies in the scheme
that the larvae of many
insects differ widely
bee's
;
nor
can
we
wonder
that
an
interveningperiod of quiescence(the pupa stage)has
exists
the gap which
become
to bridge over
necessary
between
the two
totallydistinct phases of life. To
formation,
transAvebury, the necessary
quote the late Lord
in the case
of a caterpillar,could hardly
take place while the insect was
growing fast, and
consequentlyfeedingvoraciously; nor, if the change
"
could
be
thus
effected,would
stages, be
in
the
mouth,
in its intermediate
fitted for
biting and
reasoning applies also to
chewing leaves. The same
the digestive organs.
goes
underthe caterpillar
Hence
if any, change, except in size, and
the
little,
metamorphosis is concentrated, so to say, into the
The changes then become
last two
moults.
so
rapid
and
extensive
that the intermediate
sarily
period is necesof quiescence."
one
Before
concluding this chapter,a few words must
be said respecting classification.
Formerly its chief
aim
to
was
things in convenient
groups
arrange
accordingto their obvious agreements and differences.
But
of classification put forward
nowadays the schemes
by naturalists are deliberate attempts to express
outward
be it noted,
relationship not mere
similarity,
but actual kinship. For
since the days of Charles
Darwin
naturalists have
become
firmly convinced
have
descended
that all existingplants and animals
"
any
way
in unbroken
IN
succession
from
inhabited
of life which
We
already
have
been
from
derived
speak
; and
the
in any
remote
who
have
stock.
This
qualifiedto
are
alter the
to
agree
this
way,
past.
to
appear
ancestral
authorities
classification of insects
made
insects
all those
these
when
simpler forms
in the
earth
worm-like
by
15
the much
that
seen
a
is admitted
much
GENERAL
INSECTS
that
means
fresh
earthed
discovery. They have unhitherto obscure,
evidence of relationship
some
thus able to add to our
and are
knowledge of insect
bear in mind, however, that all
must
lineage. We
be somewhat
of classification must
schemes
artificial,
they
have
because
a
of convenience
for the sake
have
we
to
group
which seem
most
together those
nearly akin. These groups have no real and separate
of insect life upon
existence in the long sequence
the
earth.
future
become
Just as past, present, and
the countless
so
generations of
merged in eternity,
kinds
insects which
race
For
Linne, or
that
which
to
form
Linnaeus,
known
seemed
one
immense
great Swedish
the
as
to
to
since
in
use
botanist, Carl
called.
resemble
assembled
and
each
other
gave
animals
the
species
closely
most
two
names
generic name,
and
a
exclusive
to
the
group,
von
He
he
into little groups, each
of which
In this way
species received
every
common
are
we
of plants and
species,
him,
the
familytree.
now
is often
he
to all the kinds,or
were
another
one
of classification
the method
to
to be
succeeded
have
began combine
indebted
names
of insects
called
a
genus.
"
a
specific
cerned.
particularplant or animal conblack
Take, for example, our three common
and
white
butterflies,which
belong to the genus
Pieris. The
large white is called Pieris brassica,the
small white
Pieris rapa, and
the green-veined white
name,
to
the
BRITISH
16
Pieris
napi
the
the
kinds
of
to
"
The
Latin
plants
fact
the
of
mind
The
lack
significance to
Russian
the
know
at
Linnaeus
which
These
of
been
group
order
smaller
found
advisable
"
is
of
the
which
hundreds
to
to
genus
belong to
(it may
make
up
characters, which
of
the
which
group
;
and
comprises
hexapod)
type.
would
larger groups,
again into classes.
bring
the
Linnaeus's
in
often
are
time
kind
another
and
the
split up
into
genus
remember
to
our
insects.
of
are
that
be
are
so
all
all bound
are
not
on
the
of
we
animals
these
theless
never-
the
of
species
than
species
;
genera
species which
the
go
together by definite
outside
seen
until
akin
distinct
thousands)
are
several
The
more
or
all
knowledge
nearly
more
two
family
a
he
or
still
since
but
express
affinities
same
Frenchman,
contrived,
artificially
divisions, although
"natural"
the
sections, sub-orders, sub-families,
important
intended
to
meant.
these
to
in
consists
insects,
into
large groups
called
species
nationality
butterfly might
the
between
family
the
ones,
It
etc.
orders, and
still in use,
while
;
the
means
his
studied
had
are
the
"
no
"
German,
his genera
called
terms
it has
the
massed
he
what
Pieris brassica
what
once
by
precise meaning
a
large white
"
if he
; but
caterpillarsfeed.
often, but
matter
no
words
be.
the
reference
justification,however,
student,
may
having
peculiarityof
some
they bear
that
the
insects
chief
Their
which
on
of
invariably,suggest
in
specific names
three
names
question.
INSECTS
to
come
of
the
the
confines
the
insect
class,
(alias
CHAPTER
II
EARWIGS,
FISH-INSECTS,
COCKROACHES,
ALLIES
THEIR
THE
first
Aptera.
Its
main
delicate
with
resembling
adults
really
off
branched
whether
climbed
points
moot
to
which
is
essentially
boxes,
cupboards,
a
variety
damages
books,
upon
the
Its
paper.
shaped
"
"
is
The
scales.
cerci, whence
to
this
of
they
insect
body
completely
and
its
"silver
or
described
covered
with
carries
"
near
Lepisma
bristle-tails
relatives.
saccharina.
17
it feeds
at
as
"
of
silvery
long, slender
is often
The
times
"carrot-
minute,
three
in
surface
the
aptly
known
dwelling
and
away
the
lady,"1
where
substances,
pointed tail-end
1
2
"
present
best
insect,
by gnawing
etc.,
the
or
winged
certainly
shelving,
among
of
their
to
they
stock,
level
are
fish,"
they
since
ancestral
high
the
that
sense
Perhaps
vegetable
name
the
household
a
and
the
a
but
;
"silver
little
is the
in
Whether
retrograded
simplest of all living insects.
species
size.
no
exactly
young
in
original
insects
undergo
modification
no
subsequently
efficiencyand
are
or
the
once
"
primitive
"
from
they
state,
except
little
sustained
have
hatched
newly
the
the
are
They
the
is termed
tiny, wingless
biting mouth-parts.
metamorphosis,
Aptera
all
are
which
is divided
(or Hexapoda)
members
into
order,
or
group,
Insecta
class
AND
antennae
applied
are
INSECTS
BRITISH
18
longer than the cerci,and very mobile, while the
with extraordinaryrapidity; so that, despite
legs move
its skulking habits, Lepisma is wonderfully alert and
agile,and on the smallest alarm scuttles nimbly to
some
place of hiding. A very similar species, but
with a more
pronounced taste for the good things of
warehouses
and
life,frequents especiallyLondon
even
bakeries, where
"
A
it is known
Science
brat."
baker's
leaves
dead
and
species,2which
looks
abounds
heaps
the
All
among
"
fire
brat,"
or
calls it Thermobia
third, nearly white, species1
among
on
the
as
a
is
mould
garden
like
furnorum.
fairlycommon
large
of loose
; while
brown
stones
fourth
a
Lepisma,
at
spots
some
coast.
above-cited
the
relatives,make
segments,
some
bristle-tailed
the
up
Thysanura)
species,which,
of the
of which
Aptera, have
carry pairsof
with
their
section
(or
near
order
sub-
abdominal
ten
small
"
limbs";
these are
is
used to assist locomotion
though whether
known.
A
second
section (sub-order
not
definitely
Collembola) includes the quaint little insects known
as
more
spring-tails."They are
usually much
compactly built than their bristle-tailed allies,with
only six evident abdominal
segments ; but the most
in many
characteristic feature
species is a forked
appendage, lying beneath the body and actuated by
of which
is able to
the creature
muscles, by means
hurl itself into the air
whence
the popular name.
in
Spring-tailsof various species are very common
side,
decaying vegetable matter, on herbage by the roadof ponds.
and on the banks
kinds disport
Other
"
"
themselves
salt,and
are
upon
the
surface of water, both
able to sustain
Campodta staphylinus.
long periodsof
2
Machilis
fresh
and
submersion.
maritima.
III.
COMMON
AND
LESSER
EARWIGS
A
MEADOW
GRASSHOPPER
(Stenobothrus)
Tettix
bipunctatus
BUSH
CHEEP
(Thamnotrizon)
HOUSE-CRICKET
(Gryllus)
Ectobia
lapponica
BRITISH
20
The
INSECTS
of
foldingthe wings is very complicated,
is well described
and
by Mr. O. H. Latter in the
first
followingpassage : The lower radiatingveins
delicate
membrane
come
together, creasing the
mode
"
rather
second
fanwise
them
between
basal
the
near
fold
cross
of
dilated
hard
in
fold
cross
a
;
part, and
the
is then
is followed
direction
reverse
made
by
close
a
to
the
divergent veins ; a
close to the base, so that the
contraction then occurs
is compressed, the softer parts
folded structure
whole
the abdomen
is
passing below the hard ; and, finally,
the nippers at its end
turned
employed to
up and
A small
portion of each
push all snugly 'home.'"1
folded wing, however, always projectsa little beyond
The
its tegmen
common
cover.
or
earwig, being
in flight
;
mainly nocturnal in habit, is rarely seen
brush
and
the
but, by using a small camel's-hair
blunt end of a fine needle, the wing of a newly-dead
difficulty.
specimen can be unfolded without much
The male of the common
earwig has nine evident
abdominal
segments, the female only seven, though in
is ten.
The
the actual number
each case
forceps of
also differ those of the male being strongly
the sexes
and toothed at their bases, while those of the
curved
without teeth, and cross
at
female are almost straight,
female
has no ovipositor. She lays her
the tips. The
watches
until they
and
them
over
eggs in the soil,
them
again into a heap if they should
hatch, collecting
a
line
spots
on
"
chance
to
be scattered.
It has
from
also been
stated
that
place to another in
be exposed constantlyto the conditions
order that they may
favourable to their development,and that
most
during the early stages of their
she fosters the young
she carries them
i
"
about
Natural
one
History of Common
Animals."
EARWIGS
21
is
points, however, the evidence
The young earwigs are hatched
somewhat
conflicting.
in the spring. They undergo several
moults, and
of the same
attain maturityin the late summer
year.
but otherwise
resemble
They have no wings at first,
the adults in generalform.
Thus, it is often said that
there is no
metamorphosis ; but, in view of the fact
that the attainment
of wings as growth proceeds constitutes
in itself a notable
change, we shall probably
if we
the mark
that metamorphosis is
be nearer
state
slight. Earwigs have mouth-parts of the ordinary
biting type, and are omnivorous, destroyingsnails,
and pupae, but also doing considerable
slugs;small caterpillars,
damage in gardens by feeding on the petals
of flowers,leaves,and fruit
wall fruit beingespecially
On
growth.
these
"
liable to attack.
The
earwig" calls for a word of explanation.
It appears
in the widespread belief
to have
originated
that
the
of sleepers,and
even
ears
earwigs enter
In almost all European countries
penetrate the brain.
the popular name
of these insects has reference to the
same
supposed habit. Little evidence exists to support
the theory,although Mr. Latter tells me
that he
heard
in which
of a case
once
an
earwig did enter the
ear
of
name
a
"
child,and caused
some
inconvenience
before
it
when
mankind, in his
dislodged. Perchance
barbarian
days, sleptprone upon the ground in a cave
beneath
the shelter of an
or
wigs
overhanging rock, earis
than
were
more
apt to take refugein his ears
the case
to-day.
The
third order
of insects, termed
Orthoptera,
is represented in Britain
by the cockroaches, grasshoppers,
All these insects have
and
crickets.
biting
mouth-parts of the usual type. The fore-wings(tegcould
be
BRITISH
22
INSECTS
and
much
mina) are
thickened,
relatiyelynarrow
for the larger,more
delicate hindservingas covers
wings, which fold up like a fan. Orthoptera may be
divided into two sections,accordingas they habitually
walk
the hind-legs
or
leap. Thus, in the cockroaches
used
are
for walking or
running, and do not differ
greatlyfrom the other legsin appearance
; but in the
grasshoppersand crickets the hind-legsare very long,
with
their femora
often greatlythickened, and
the
insect usually progresses
by a series of leaps. The
of Orthoptera (like
those of earwigs)closelyreyoung
emble
their parents,
of functional wings.
The
in the
in size and
save
absence
familiar
sorial,
example of the running, or curcockroach,1 or
Orthoptera viz.,the common
is not indigenous,
of our
kitchens
but
black-beetle,"
It is practically
an
politan
cosmoimmigrant from the East.
carried
from
in its range, having been
one
country to another by shipping. The male is capable
of flight,
reduced
but the wings of the female
to
are
small, movable
plates,which reach back only to the
most
"
"
"
third segment
of the
thorax.
Like
of its
many
near
this insect is nocturnal
in habit,and hides by
relatives,
It is nearly omnivorous, and in
day in dark crevices.
weaker
brethren,
captivityfeeds readily on its own
although when choice is possibleit appears to favour
a
vegetariandiet. Onion is a coveted dainty,and is
said to be
one
of the
best
baits for
a
"
black-beetle
"
trap.
native
speciesof
number, all belong to
Our
in
smaller
much
not
found
1
than
cockroach
the genus
their domesticated
in houses.
Blatta
the
orientalis.
The
family,2three
Ectobia.
They are
relative,and
commonest
seems
2
to
Blattida.
are
be the
COCKROACHES
which
blackish,E. lapponica,
dark,almost
nettles,or under
be
23
in
seen
and
moss
number,
from
sunshine
leaves.
dead
great
lives in shrubs,
the
It rnay
times
some-
males
flying
point of vantage to
A
testaceous
or
another.
greyish species1 has a
the
especiallynear
speciallikingfor sandy districts,
The
third species2 appears
to be somewhat
coast.
has
been
but
captured in several English
rare,
It is
counties, including Surrey and
Hampshire.
the
activelyin
one
pale straw-colour,with a reddish tint on the pronotum
roaches
the dorsal plateof the prothorax,which in cocki.e.,
is a
prominent feature, especiallyin the
ing
winged adults, being usuallyround, and often projectIn E. livida
considerablyover the sides and head.
both sexes
can
fly,but in the other two speciesof the
genus the wings of the females are rudimentary.
cockroaches
have no ovipositors.They lay
Female
their eggs in protectivecases, or capsules,which vary
in size and form
according to the species. The egg
cockroach
is bean -shaped,
capsule of the common
dark mahogany coloured,with a fluted ridgealong the
sixteen eggs, arranged in two
It contains
dorsal side.
parallelrows, and is carried about protruding from
the posteriorend of the female's body until a suitable
for it is found.
After hatching,
the young
hiding-place
cockroaches
push against the sides of the capsule,
thus
opening a slit along the dorsal ridge,through
The
duration
which
of the common
they escape.
"
cockroach's
life,and
pointswhich
Some
reached
have
observers
not
the
yet been
have
until the fourth
individual
may
1
E.
extend
panzeri.
number
stated
year,
to
of its moults,
are
established.
definitely
that
maturity is not
and
that
five years.
2
the
In
life of the
the
E. livida.
case
of
BRITISH
24
cockroaches, however,
other
some
known
course
be
to
of
a
Besides
INSECTS
much
few
months.
least six other exotic
at
ovientalis,
in Britain,two
having established
Blatta
cockroaches
more
development is
rapid,being complete in the
occur
colonies
flourishing
in several
localities,
though always
within the shelter of buildings. One
of these is the
is a wild, woodland
German
cockroach,1 which
species
in many
parts of Europe and a household
pest in
is the American
other
The
Germany and France.
is said to be
real home
cockroach,2 whose
America, although it has spread with commerce,
is
now
in most
found
parts of the world.
South
Both
and
these
in many
speciesare numerous
warehouses, restaurants,
and
in London, and
in some
of the
hotels,especially
in Regent's Park.
houses
at the ZoologicalGardens
The former is rather small (aboutfive eighthsof an inch
from head to tail),
reddish-testaceous
in colour,
with two
marks
the pronotum.
The latter
dark, longitudinal
on
is a handsome, chestnut
brown
inch and a
one
insect,
in length. In each speciesboth sexes
quarter or more
have fully-developed
wings.
The
section of the Orthopleaping,or saltatorial,
tera
comprises the short-horned
grasshoppers,3the
and
the crickets.5
long-hornedor tree-grasshoppers,4
In addition to the great development of their hindof
these
insects
characterized
are
legs, many
by
remarkable
auditorystructures, or "ears," while the
males
usuallypossess stridulating
by means
organs,
of which
they are able to produce chirping" sounds.
The
females
are
equipped with ovipositors,which
"
1
Phyllodromiagermanica.
3
Locustida
4
"
the
Acvidiida
Phas%onurid"z.
2
of
Periplanetaamericana.
authors.
some
5
Gryllidce.
GRASSHOPPERS
25
grasshoppers)are often very
(exceptin short-horned
conspicuous, projecting far beyond the extremityof
the abdomen.
be recognized by
grasshoppers may
short antennae
(composed of not more
relatively
tory
tarsi. Their audithirtyjoints)and four-jointed
Short-horned
their
than
structures
are
situated
one
on
each
side of the
segment, immediatelyabove
first abdominal
lation
the articu-
hind-leg. Each consists of a tympanum,
drum," with a complex arrangement of nerve,
of the
"
or
muscles,
tracheal
and
tubes.
The
tympanum
may
be
depression,or it may be
less roofed over, so to speak, so that one
more
or
only
The
males
broad
slitwith a cavitybeneath.
sees
a
of the hind-legs
stridulate by rubbing the femora
against the tegmina or fore-wings. If we examine
with a strong magnifying lens the hind-legof a male
side of the
shall find on
the inner
grasshopper, we
femur
tubercles.
of minute
a
ridge,carrying a row
visible
This
upon
externallyas
is the
a
bow
a
with
prominent vein
shrill sound.
It is
rimmed
which
fiddles
the littlemusician
of the fore-wing,thus
producing
"
fact that the
interesting
song
varies in different species,and an expert is often able
kind of grasshopper
what
to tell,merely by listening,
is making merry
in a given spot. The
female grasshoppers
have
to
not
stridulatingorgans,
appear
althoughthey have well-developed"ears." This lends
held by many
naturalists
support to the belief now
that the chirpingof the male is a kind of courtship
accomplishment, calculated to excite amorous
sities
propenin members
of the oppositesex.
The ovipositors
of female short-horned
grasshoppersare inconspicuous.
The eggs are laid in the soil,a number
being deposited
in one
hole together with a quantityof fluid which
a
an
"
26
BRITISH
INSECTS
ultimatelyhardens, forming a protectivecapsule. All
the Locustida are exclusively
vegetable feeders. Some
in Britain,if we
fifteen speciesoccur
include the stray
visit us.
locusts l which occasionally
Only the common
field grasshoppers, however, are
truly indigenous.
These
fall into three genera
Gomviz.,Stenobothrus,
phocerus,and Tettix. The last includes two species,
which may be known
at once
by the crrious extension
"
of the
pronotum
backwards
over
abdomen.
the
In
wings are long and the pronotum is
has short wings and the
while T. bipunctatus
nearlyflat,
The
latter species,which
highly arched.
pronotum
ings
to be the more
frequentsdry clearcommon,
appears
T. subulatus
in
the
woods,
where
it hides
amongst
dead
leaves.
It
spring,hibernates during the cold
be found by searching all the year
weather,, and may
round.
The
Stenobothms
(six species) and
genera
Gomphocerus (three species) include the well-known
meadow
of
the
former
grasshoppers," members
being distinguished by their thread-like,tapering
lays
in
its eggs
"
antennae,
while
those
of the
latter have
the
antennae
guished
distinare
club-shaped. The species of Stenobothms
which
characters
be dealt
cannot
by minute
with
here.
species
Probably the three commonest
and 5. bicolor,all of which
S. viridulus,
are
S.parallelus,
be found
almost
on
any grassy spot throughout
may
the summer.
Gomphocera vufus is reddish in colour,
its specific
as
name
implies. It frequentsdry, grassy
places,especiallyupon hillsides. G. maculatus,which
in sandy districts,
be recognized by its
occurs
may
G. sibiricus is reallya mountain
spottedappearance.
in the
the
British
list on
insect, and is included
is said to have
specimen which
strength of a solitary
1
So
far
as
is
known,
these
large speciesdo
not
stridulate.
BRITISH
28
apparent
relish.
July,and
in
The
INSECTS
adults
lay
autumn
at
appear
their eggs
the
in the
end
of
earth, in
in the
pithy stems of plants; The
in the late spring,and
hatch
undergo about
young
six moults before reachingmaturity.
There are nine indigenous British Phasgonurida,
but
speciescan be mentioned
only three of the commoner
here.
Meconema
varium, a gracefulinsect,pale green
in colour,with a yellow dorsal stripe,
lives on
trees,
oak and lime, and may
be shaken
from the
especially
and
The
autumn.
foliagein late summer
great
* is
a much
largerspecies in fact,
green grasshopper
the largest
of all. Its colour is deep green, often with
reddish and dark markings. It dwells among
nettles
and coarse
in the south,
common
herbage,and is fairly
the
The
bush
coast.
particularlynear
cheep,"2
which
is brown
with black markings,occurs
among
and bushes, often in hedgerows.
brambles
It may
be
heard
chirpingon fine summer
evenings,and has the
habit of continuing its music late into the night.
crickets3
The
resemble
the
long-horned grasshoppers
in many
be distinguished
respects, but may
female's
readily by their three-jointedtarsi. The
curved
evident, is straight not
ovipositor,when
upwards, as in the preceding family. Moreover, the
males have a stridulating
file on
the underside of each
is usually folded
tegmen, while the right tegmen
above the left not left above
right,as with the longhorns.
Crickets are
omnivorous, and will
practically
small
eat
insects,etc., in addition to leaves,
worms,
other
There
four
are
roots, and
vegetable food.
British species. Of these the wood-cricket4
is the
crevices
of bark, or
"
"
"
"
"
"
1
3
Locusta
viridissima.
Gvyllidce.
2
4
Thamnotrizon
Nemobius
cinereus.
sylvestris.
CRICKETS
and
smallest
this
dwells
the
to
supposed
in
it is found
where
New
dry
on
be
to
a
wild
a
to
confined
be
in
district, where
Forest
leaves
dead
among
cricket1 is
It appears
rarest.
country
29
The
banks.
native
of North
state
but
;
it
house-
Africa,
it has
lished
estab-
in all parts of
dwellingsof man
Europe, livingalways in the neighbourhood of the
itself in the
hearth
or
the
is,however, far less
It
oven.
common
England than was formerlythe case, and Mr. Latter
tion
has suggested that it may
be in process of exterminaThe
field-cricket2
cockroach.
by the common
is much
almost black
largerthan its domestic relative,
in colour, with
a
yellow patch at the bases of the
in
It forms
burrows
tegmina.
dry, sandy spots
which
are
exposed to the sun ; but although common
in many
parts of Europe, in England is confined to a
in
few
isolated
the
naturalist
observed
This
localities.
Bates
wrote
is the
:
The
"
insect
male
of which
has
been
place itself in the evening at the entrance
of its burrow, and stridulate until a female approaches,
the
when
louder
succeeded
notes
are
by a more
subdued
with
to
tone, whilst the
his antennae
the
successful
he
mate
effect of
has
musician
won."
caresses
It
seems
a
this
pleasing picture by
all crickets are
inveterate
and
fighters,
that in China the males are
pittedone againstanother
for sport. Last, but by no
least in point of
means
interest,is the mole-cricket,3 a large and curiously
in England,
common
never
shaped species that was
and
has apparentlydisappeared in recent
years from
pity to mar
stating that
the
several localities where
of
1
the
mole-cricket
was
once
is very
2
found.
The
leg
fore-
remarkable, being
Grylluscampestris.
vulgans.
Gryllotalpa
Gryllusdomesticus.
3
it
INSECTS
BRITISH
30
tibia has
The
short, broad
adapted for burrowing.
kind
of
serve
as
a
prong-likeprojections below, which
furnished
with
are
rake, while two jointsof the tarsus
hard
which
processes,
which
roots
the
soil
but
the
this
The
female
of
number
only
is
sex
Mole-crickets
male.
which
burrows
has
shears
abdominal
cutting
extensive
in
they construct,
and
in
segments
with
compared
dwell
for
forth
through
projecting ovipositor,
no
evident
seven,
as
and
insect's progress
the
impede
may
back
moved
acting
thus
tibial prongs,
the
over
be
can
are
nine
in
the
subterranean
seldom
seen
They usually frequent damp places,
Gilbert White, the Selborne
to water.
naturalist,
near
and
gives a word-picture of this insect's home-life
A gardener at a
be hard to beat.
habits that would
1 was
where
house
a
on
visit,"he writes, happening
the 6th
of May, by the side of a
be mowing, on
to
canal, his scythe struck too deep, pared off a large
of
scene
piece of turf,and laid open to view a curious
ground.
above
"
"
domestic
winding
economy.
There
passages,
leading
were
to
many
kind
a
caverns
of
and
chamber,
and
rounded, and about the size of
neatly smoothed
Within
this secret
an
ordinary snuff-box.
nursery
of a dirty yellow
was
deposited nearly a hundred
eggs
colour, and enveloped in a tough skin, but too lately
extruded
full of
and
heap
a
contain
viscous
within
the
of fresh
Like
and
to
are
substance.
influence
mould,
earwigs,
said to
rudiments
any
The
of
like that
mole-crickets
care
the
for
young,
being
lay but shallow,
just under a little
eggs
sun,
which
watch
their young
stages of their development.
of
is raised
over
by
ants."
their
eggs,
during
the
early
III
CHAPTER
MAY-FLIES,
BOOK-LICE,
STONE-FLIES,
AND
DRAGON-FLIES
WE
only
that
so
are
In
The
usually
are
of antennae
The
the
of
of
manner
which
earwig
or
the
wings,
different,
Although
seldom
it
for
it
is
employs
the
larger.
the
is
seen
protecting
that
they
back,
;
while
is
cerci
insect
the
at
When
lap,
over-
the
sides
and
front,
wards,
down-
turned
the
of
and
of
the
the
wings
for
flight.
useless
are
jointed,
many
long
and
have
slender,
the
and
of
extremity
to
appears
have
a
;
already
this
in
seen
for
Except
stone-fly closely
but
its
in
lives
able
differs
development
cockroach.
young
form
in
parents
network
stone-flies, however,
growth
we
the
pairs of wings,
pair
end.
each
at
stone-flies.1
complex
fore-wing
and
two
that
so
that
from
each
long,
are
abdomen,
the
upon
reduced
antennae
there
lie flat
male
many
much
so
of
covering
thus
much
insects, the
the
two
a
being
fore-wing
one
portion
costal,
body.
wings
the
all
closed,
and
with
texture,
hind-wings
the
veins,
in
alike
are
of
order
comprises
biting mouth-parts,
have
which
or
which
Plecoptera,
They
fourth
the
to
come
now
rapidly
well
means
1
of
Perlida.
absence
resembles
are
flowing
with
progress,
of
case
the
surroundings
swim
to
the
little
its
its
very
streams.
legs, it
preferring
to
BRITISH
32
INSECTS
about among
the stones
at the bottom.
stealthily
Some
stone-flynymphs are said to feed on decayed
vegetation,but the majority are
carnivorous, their
chief prey consistingof the young
of May-flies,
or
creep
other
small, soft
creatures.
the stone-fly
merged,
Clearly,
nymph, being constantlysubbreathe
cannot
through open spiraclesafter
the
manner
it
tracheae.
of insects
which
has
ordinary system
the
But
the
main
dwell
trunks
the
be found
beneath
may
little tufts of thread-like
abdomen,
between
cuticle of
the
the
of
with
of which
thorax, while
dissolved
air
ramifying
groups
gillsat the
cerci.
Through
gillsthe
theless,
Never-
connected
are
twelve
gill-filaments,
tufted,hollow
absorbed
in the air.
there
end
the
in the
are
of
the
delicate
is
water
into the tracheae,though the
precisemanner
of this gaseous
exchange is imperfectlyunderstood.
and
Some
to
nymphs have no gills,
stone-fly
appear
breathe
skin, at
through the integument, or outer
points below which the main trunks of the tracheae
converge.
The
change
effected
When
from
without
a
nymphal
the
in
break
the
full-grown,the nymph,
have
become
more
and
more
moult, simply crawls
convenient
to
the adult state
creature's
whose
wing
obvious
with
out
of the
is
activity.
rudiments
each
ceeding
suc-
water, and
twig. Its skin
the back
for the last time, and the
then splits
down
After a short interval,the
perfect insect emerges.
wings attain their full size. Moreover, the spiracles
climbs
are
now
up
some
open
;
but it is
a
reed
curious
or
fact that most, if not
vestigesof
gillsbeneath the thorax throughout their winged life.
stone-flies frequent trees, and
Adult
although very
retain
all,speciesof stone-fly
the shrivelled
IV.
\
MAY-FLY
DRAGON-FLY
(Ephemera)
TIP
DRAGON-FLY
(Calopteryx)
OF
NYMPH's
DRAGON-FLY
NYMPH
WITH
"MASK"
"
"
MASK
EXTENDED
34
BRITISH
regular tapping
againstwoodwork.
noise
INSECTS
by knocking
Whether
its
jaws
this is indeed
or
head
the
case
question,although several competent
One
other wing-t
observers attest it as a fact.
two
or
sometimes
less forms of Corrodentia
found in houses,
are
while certain winged species are very common
out of
The
doors.
latter frequent the trunks
and
branches
kinds preferringdead wood
of trees
and feed
some
lichens and fungi. Numbers
of these tiny creatures
on
be captured during the summer
months
by the
may
sheet of
a
simple process of shaking a branch over
remains
an
open
"
"
paper.
The
book-lice
"
"
and
their
relatives1 make
near
up
sub-order
The
Copeognatha of the Corrodentia.
sub-order2
second
comprises the remarkable
parasites
These
bird-lice."
insects,which
commonly called
be
confused
their repulsive bloodwith
sucking
must
not
in a succeeding chapter
namesakes
mentioned
(p. 54),feed on the delicate parts of the feathers or
hairs, and the dried secretions of the skin, of their
of the species live among
Most
the feathers
"host"
found upon
mammals.
but a few are
One3
of birds,].
occurs
upon^dogs. These Mallophaga have relatively
large, hard heads and flattened bodies, while their
mouth-parts are lodged in a special cavity. Many
kinds lay ^strangely
shaped and beautiful eggs, which
much
in demand
as
are
objectsfor the microscope.
The sixth order of British insects
viz.,Ephemeropthe
"
"
tera
"
has
been
constituted
for
the
benefit
of
the
to other insects remains
relationship
In adult May-flies
the mouth-parts are
very obscure.
abortive or obsolete,while the digestivetrack is also
whose
May-flies,4
1
PsocidcB.
2
Mallophaga.
3
Trichodectes latus.
4
Ephemerida.
MAY-FLIES
greatlyreduced
quite functionless,no
and
Thus
taken.
final stage of
the
more
historyis little,
perpetuationof
traversed
folded
by
when
a
at
above
held erect
35
than
the
food
being
May-fly'slife-
expedient to
an
the
secure
species. The wings, which
of veins, are
complex network
rest, but are
brought together
the
The
back.
the
fore-wingsare
are
not
and
much
larger than the hind-wings the latter,indeed, being
short
are
species. The antennae
quite absent in some
and
often very
are
inconspicuous, but the fore-legs
long, and are extended
beyond the head in a manner
"
suggestiveof
"
bears
abdomen
the
feelers."
thread-like
cerci.
at
The
hindmost
The
least
eyes
often
two,
of
adult
remarkably developed,especiallyin
compound
divided,so
eyes
that
of
each
this
sex
in
the
three, long
May-fliesare
males.
certain
part becomes
rely chieflyupon
sight to
during their brief twilightdances.
to
appear
So
of
a
far
writer is aware,
the
May-fly,from egg to imago, has
the
as
are
a separate
virtually
one
"
The
species
portion being supported upon
horn or pillar,
while the other occupies a
Male
position at the side of the head.
organ
of
segment
kind
a
of
usual
more
May-flies
mates
secure
complete life-story
not
yet been
told.
It is
known, however, that the eggs are dropped into
the water
by the female, and that the earlystages of
considerable
over
a
development extend
period, in
three years.
The
some
as
speciesperhaps as much
nymphs vary greatlyin form according to their habits,
but
always
unlike
their parents, being relatively
mouthrobust, with well developed mandibulate
are
parts.
They
part feed
creatures
on
are
very
entirelyaquatic, and
water-weeds, though
smaller and weaker
some
for the
most
also devour
than themselves.
Breath-
INSECTS
BRITISH
36
ing is effected by
within
which
found
not
the abdominal
Albeit
tubes
thorax, as
the
but
flynymph,
tracheal
the
on
of thread-like
means
are
of the stone-
case
arranged in pairs at
are
These
ramify.
in the
gills,
sides of
the
segments.
May-fly differs widely in appearance
plete,
form, its metamorphosis is incomquiescent or pupal stage being assumed.
nymph is full grown, it creeps out of the
the back, and the winged
skin splitsdown
the
young
its adult
from
no
When
the
water,
its
insect
appears.
But
insect
which
is not
transformation
the
their
complete, for May-flies undergo
after they have
acquired the use
The
leaf-like
or
from
emerges
of
the
yet
final moult
their
wings.
splitskin
of the
full-grownnymph is dull in hue, and seems, so to
speak, to lack polish. It is,in fact,enveloped in a
is cast off either immediately or
delicate skin, which
in the
of several
course
in its true
appears
Thereafter
hours.
colours,having
the insect
its
reached
perfect
state.
There
very
are
about
small.
known
vulgata,
The
seventh
and
flies,
some
fortyBritish May-flies,
of
One
to
the
anglersas
order
the
of insects
is called Odonata.
distinctive features
is
commonest
that
"
grey
being
Ephemera
drake."
comprises
Its members
the
dragon-
possess
so
unlikelyto be
The
with any other British insects.
confused
large
behind, is attached
head, which is strongly concave
to the thorax
by a slender and remarkably mobile
neck," and can thus be turned readilyfrom side to
to make
good use of its
side, enabling the creature
Dragon-fliesdepend almost
huge compound eyes.
their keenness
of vision when
ing
huntexclusively
upon
their insect prey, which
they chase and capture
many
"
they are
DRAGON-FLIES
in mid-air.
Possiblythis
37
accounts
for the
smallness
if we
of the antennae, which
judge by their size
may
be of littleservice as sense-organs
and structure"
can
;
"
and
other activities
food-getting
be
known
to
are
largelygoverned by smell the
antennae
are
usuallymarkedly developed. The mouthof the biting type, the
parts of a dragon-flyare
mandibles
being exceptionallylarge and powerful ;
but both pairs of maxillae are
greatlyflattened and
otherwise
modified, forming, in conjunction with the
broad
lip or labrum, a trap for seizingand
upper
of the dragonfly
holdingthe prey. Another peculiarity
for in insects whose
is the arrangement
especiallythe mesoviewed
are
laterally,
of its thoracic
and
seen
metathorax.
to
segments,
These,
slope forward
more
when
in such
a
all
wings are carried backwards
the six legs are
brought close together under the
kind
of basket
for
as
a
mouth, where
they serve
If a fly
holdingthe prey while it is being devoured.
be offered to a captive dragon-fly,
it uses
its legs to
seize the victim, but the capture is probably effected
by the mouth-parts when the insect is flyingfreelyin
have
four wings, which
the air. All dragon-flies
are
glassyin texture, and traversed by a complex network
Each
of veins.
is actuated
by powerful muscles,
the very long
be moved
and can
; while
separately
abdomen
suppliesunique facilities for steering. It is
said that the largerdragon-flies
wards,
sometimes
flybackway
that
but
while
the
this assertion
Nevertheless, their
powers
still calls for verification.
of
where
flight,
especially
rapid manoeuvring is concerned, surpass those of any
other insect.
The general resemblance
of a dragon-fly
to a man-made
aeroplane is not without significance.
The female dragon-fly
(accordingto her kind)either
BRITISH
38
drops her eggs
INSECTS
into
at random
pool or lake,or boldly
in order to lay them
the water
enters
the submerged
upon
of water-plants,
in the mud
stems
at the
or
bottom.
The nymphs are quite unlike their parents ;
but althoughthose of the various speciesdiffer among
themselves
in details of colour and form, they all possess
certain peculiarities
which
render them
able.
unmistakThe
"mask"
characteristic
most
"really
maxillae,or
second
by
Mr.
attached
below
the head
and
a
elaborate
an
labium.
"
:
hinder
; the
the mouth
of
The
half
the
is described
contrivance
follows
as
is called the
modification
The
J. Lucas
W.
feature
base
is
lies under
fore-partof the thorax ; there is a joint
in the middle, and the fore-part
lies under the hinder,
bringingthe base and tiptogetherclose to the mouth."1
This is the positionof the mask
when
But it
at rest.
can
be shot
that
way
out
in much
great rapidity,
pugilistdelivers
a
shoulder."
with
"blow
a
tip of the mask
hooks
pair of sharp, movable
(which are
modified labial palpi),
of which
by means
is able
Moreover,
the
the
same
from
the
carries
a
reallythe
the
nymph
animal
that is unlucky
any small
When
within range.
a
enough to come
capture has
been made, the mask
folds back, bringingthe victim to
the
to
seize
mandibles
and
first maxillae.
photograph reproduced
reader
to appreciate the
on
Plate
glance at the
IV. will help the
A
in which
manner
the
mask
works.
Dragon-flynymphs vary in colour from brightgreen,
through yellowish-greento brown, or almost black.
Indeed, individuals of the same
speciesoften differ
greatlyin tint ; and it is said
almost
entirelyupon
1
"
British
that
the
the
coloration
environment, and
Dragon-Flies."
pends
deis
DRAGON-FLIES
adaptable thereto, so that
when
brown
lyingon mud,
to
come
rest
faculty,as
among
Mr.
Lucas
39
the
be
may
later if it should
nymph
same
but green
This
weeds.
remarks,
"
no
chameleon-like
doubt
serves
a
nymph from its
time
same
enabling it, without
distance
being suspected,to approach within striking
of the
has none
of its prey." In fact, the nymph
its parents.
Usually, it
activitywhich distinguishes
double
that
purpose,
enemies, and at the
either waits
of
for its victim
hiding
to
draw
the
near,
or
else creeps
though it can, on occasion, dart
forward
considerable
with
propellingitself
rapidity,
of a jet of water
expelledfrom the anal openby means
ing,
or
species)with the aid of three oar-like
(in some
men.
blades which
projectfrom the extremityof the abdoThe
food of the dragon-fly
nymph consists of
be
it may
with which
almost
aquatic creatures
any
of the largerkinds even
Some
strong enough to cope.
towards
stealthily
attack
small
it ;
fish.
dragon-flynymphs breathe in one of two
the
In most
of the largerand heavier species,
ways.
is lined with
rectum, or hinder portionof the intestine,
the
from
receive fine branches
folds,which
gill-like
in and exdrawn
Water
tracheal tubes.
is constantly
pelled
through the anus, and the dissolved oxygen
it carries passes
which
through the delicate cuticle of
the gill-folds
into the tracheal
system. It is by the
that these largenymphs
forcible expulsion of this water
In the smaller
able to propel themselves
forward.
are
slender
and more
species,the three oar-like plates at
the tail-end are
traversed by airreallygill-structures,
of which
tubes,by means
exchange is effected.
gaseous
for
also be used
have
that these plates can
We
seen
In all dragon-fly
propulsionwhen occasion demands.
Young
BRITISH
40
INSECTS
nymphs, however, the
during the latter stages
obtains
then
least
time
the
full grown
nymph
the
by raisingthe
surface
of the water.
draws
convenient
stem
the
near,
feed,and
to
ceases
some
quits the
water
There
post.
or
now
remains
pupal stage. The
nymph
brief period. Then
its skin splitsabove
passive for a
the thorax, and
When
head
the
imago begins to
the
and
thorax
itself backward, and
in
remain
When
the
legs are
half
hour, supported
abdomen, which
of the
part of the
an
hard
colouringand
or
three
before the
of the
long
firm,the insect
for
Some
that
to
when
hours
must
wings have developed
while
the full
flight,
integuments
days later, With
of life,
Mr. Lucas
duration
dragon-fly's
used
to be thought
requiredthree years
as
feeble for
the upper
grasps with them
skin.
With
the purchase thus
enough
sheen
soft and
dry and
its abdomen.
out
stillelapse,however,
become
too
and
nymphal
gained,it draws
yet
as
become
they have
jerks itself upward,
take
for about
nymphal skin. The meaning of this
as
suggested by Mr. Latter, is
inactivity,
probably that
until two
itself.
free,the insect throws
are
segments
extricate
the
period of
use.
rests
the hinder
by
may
of its oxygen
some
definite
no
and
of
the final moult
for
by climbing up
is
spiracles are
open
development, and the insect
part of its body above
front
As
at
thoracic
are
not
respect
remarks
gained
the
to
:
"
It
of the
largerspecies
reach
the final stage.
They
the food-supplyis scanty, but
some
in all
probabilityit will be found that the majority
complete the cycleof existence within the year, even
if
one
or
emergence
appears
never
two
of the small
species have not
September." The life of
about
seldom
hibernate
to
exceed
after the
three
manner
months.
of
some
a
the
The
other
second
imago
adults
insects.
"
l
demoiselle,"
be
cited
as
blue
opaque
metallic
In
all,
dragon-flies,
which
is
with
in
The
green,
there
but
red
the
of
about
are
several
1
and
of
Calopteryx
patch
large
species
are
very
splendens
.
may
metallic
The
female
wings.
transparent
forty
these
a
South,
bright
wing.
each
yellowish,
the
is
male
eyes,
centre
with
in
common
example.
an
colour,
in
blue
is
INSECTS
BRITISH
42
of
rare.
British
of
CHAPTER
THRIPS,
BUGS,
IV
SCALE
AND
APHIDES,
INSECTS
JL
the
minute
creatures
eighth
order,
They
are
insects.
because
mouth-parts
sucking
while
type,
in
The
asymmetrical
hairs
wings
one
both
or
life.
joints, and
three
joints,
The
form,
claws.
while
ocelli
and
in
and
the
the
third
beneath
many
tarsi
have
have
long
with
species
sucker
always
are
there
are
two
or
one
eyes
species
are
When
sides.
bladder-like
a
the
of
are
usually
nine
from
six
their
parents
to
long.
very
the
boscis,
pro-
them
narrow,
but
antennae
similar
short
cavity
two
thrips closely resemble
have
after
winged
a
piercers,
as
of
Compound
The
never
outside
visible
the
also.
are
young
with
provided
are
the
present,
The
biting and
of
some
on
;
Their
peculiarity
that
margins
act
lies in
exceedingly
are
wingless throughout
between
is
kinds,
many
kind
remarkable
most
British
insects,"
the
to
a
use,
i.e.,they differ
"
the
on
in
not
however,
mouth-parts,
modified
up
cereals.
between
they form
when
of
other
and
being
some
of
flower
"
blossoms
wheat
conjunction
thorax.
present,
in
intermediate
are
which,
the
of
those
called
also
make
"
thrips
"
Thysanoptera,
or
abound
they
including
termed
habits.
body,
moult
and
;
43
but
The
are
wings
said
although
to
the
are
in
veloped
de-
become
meta-
BRITISH
44
INSECTS
morphosis is incomplete,it is
out
accomplished withbreak in the creature's
a
activity. In the stage
before the final change the nymph
becomes
sluggish
speciesinert)and takes no food. Its body,
(insome
limbs,and wing-rudimentsare enveloped in a thin skin,
which
is cast off priorto the assumption of the adult
state.
Thus, as Professor
Carpenter has remarked,
the development of the Thysanoptera exhibits an
transition towards
a true
metamorphosis."1
interesting
About
fiftyspecies of thrips have been found in
Britain.
suck the juices of
Most, if not all,of them
the essential organs of flowers.
plants,attackingchiefly
In this way
considerable
damage is often done to
The
cultivated crops.
known
to
pea and bean thrips,2
farmers as the
black fly,"
is the subjectof a leaflet
Fisheries.
issued by the Board
of Agricultureand
Another
species3is harmful to wheat and other cereals.
Members
of the ninth order of insects (the Hemifor
modified
ptera)have their mouth-parts definitely
and
first
mandibles
piercing and
sucking. The
transformed
maxillae are
into long, slender stylets,
which
work to and fro within a kind of grooved sheath
(calledthe rostrum)which is formed by the union of
not
"
"
the
second
maxillae.
The
contrivance
whole
tutes
consti-
lengthyproboscis,which, when not in use, lies
When
of
the body.
directed backwards
beneath
one
the Hemiptera feeds,it firstbringsthe tipof its rostrum
the
into contact
with the organism (plantor animal
as
case
be) that it is about to attack. The sharpmay
pointed styletsare then driven into the tissues,and a
into the
of saliva is pumped down
the rostrum
stream
of
wound.
The saliva is believed to arrest coagulation
a
1
2
"
Insects, their Structure
Thripspisivora.
and
3
Life."
Thrips cerealium.
BUGS
sap, thus
prolongeddraft without
the
blood
or
45
enabling the insect to
The rostrum
difficulty.
tube
a perfect
we
may
not
grooved sheath
attraction
that capillary
is the
the fluid to the mouth.
There
a
"
that at least
"
a
being
assume
chief agent in raising
for thinking
is reason
carnivorous
of the
some
take
speciesplunge
proboscisinto the tissues of their victims ;
the tipof the rostrum
seems
but in plant-feeders
rarely,
if ever, to penetrate the surface.
of an
head
The
Hemipterous insect is usually
have
triangularin shape, while the slender antennae
three to eightjoints. The
from
pronotum, or dorsal
plateof the prothorax,is often markedly developed,in
instances being the most
some
arrestingfeature of the
the whole
The
insect.
whole
order
first1 includes
The
is divided
about
430
into
two
British
orders.
sub-
species,
unfortunatelybranded with the name
of them
are
unfortunately,because
bug
many
coloured.
gracefuland attractive insects,often prettily
It is true that the objectionablebed-bug2 has a place
in their ranks, but its well-known
parasiticproclivities
are
exceptional.
be discannot
carded)
The
fore-wingof a bug (the name
less thickened and opaque
is usuallymore
or
is transparent, like
at the base, but the
apical area
in use, the
not
the hind-wing. When
wings are
folded over
one
another, and lie flat upon the insect's
A shield-like plate (the scutellum)is visible
back.
of the wings. It is the dorsal
the bases
between
all of which
are
"
"
"
part,or
mesonotum,
of the
in
sub-order
Moreover,
back
beneath
part touches
1
Termed
this
the
the
body
coxae
in such
of the
Heteroptera.
thoracic
second
head
the
a
way
is
that
segment.
not
bent
its front
fore-legs.Throughout
2
Cimex
lectularia.
INSECTS
BRITISH
46
metamorphosis is incomplete,the young
the sub-order
differing
greatlyfrom
never
absence
of
their parents,
in the
save
wings.
of convenience, the
sake
the
Heteroptera are
into two
series
viz. : (i) Gymnousually divided
the antennae
are
conspicuous, being
cerata, in which
held out in front of the head ; and (2)Cryptocerata,
in which
the antennas
are
short, and concealed
very
For
"
in cavities
"
the eyes.
bugs," though
land
several
into
divided
The
former
forms
many
are
dwell
typically
the
upon
aquatic. Each section
the
which
families, among
; the latter
of water
surface
is
beneath
are
:
followingmay be mentioned
of the
The
shield-bugsni are so called on account
in most
of the
great development of the scutellum
be
represented by Tropicoris
species. They may
thick-set, brownish
a
insect, with an orange
vufipes,
"
It is common
of the scutellum.
apex
in the autumn,
and
and preys on
bushes
trees
upon
In similar situawhose
tions
juices it sucks.
caterpillars,
spot
at
the
be
may
found
Syromastes marginatus,another
species,with broad abdominal
segments which
project on each side beyond the folded wings. It is
whose
have
the
members
of the family Coveidce,
one
scutellum
small, and four-jointedantennas
relatively
which
are
club-shaped at the tip. These characters
shared
by the Berytida,which may, however, be
are
brown
distinguishedby
their
slender
form
and
long legs.
also very
in
long, as may be seen
Neides tipularius
(Plate V.). In the Lygaidce,of which
there are about sixtyBritish
species,the four-jointed
The
antennas
antennae
Coveida.
are
An
are
lower
inserted
on
the
head
example is Nysius thymi, a
1
Pentatomida.
than
in the
small
bug
V.
SHIELD-BUG
(Tropicorisrufipes)
Ranatra
Neides
linearis
tipularius
f
WATER-SCORPION
Capsus
laniarius
(Nepci cinerea)
BRITISH
48
INSECTS
it is
largest1is occasionallyfound in houses, where
the bed-bug and other pests. When
said to prey on
immature, it has the curious habit of covering itself
Several
with dust and debris.
species of the genus
Nabis are not uncommon
among
grass and herbage.
the wings
Members
of the family Capsida have
are
large in proportion to the body. The antennae
the second joint being usuallyvery long.
four-jointed,
of which
There
about
are
170 British species,most
known
suck the juicesof plants,though a few2 are
to
insects.
other
on
They frequent plants of all
prey
kindss and
many
of them
are
very
active.
water-bugs3 are divided into four families.
The Nepida are represented by two
species viz.,the
and the raicerlRanatra
linearis.
common
water-scorpion,4
is flat and
The former
thick-set,the latter long and
the fore-legs
modified
slender. Both, however, have
the abdomen
carries
two
for capturing prey, while
long,slender processes, which, when brought together,
tube
air is conform
or
veyed
a
syphon, through which
tracheal system.
to the
Breathing is effected
by thrustingthe tipof the syphon through the surfacefilm into the atmosphere.
have
The
Naucovida
four-jointedantennae, and are
by having the fore-legs
especiallycharacterized
We
have
attached far forward on the prosternum.
two
indigenous species of these, Naucoris cimicoides
(not unlike a small water-beetle in appearance) is
whereas
astivalis is rare.
Aphelocheints
common,
The only conspicuous British representativeof the
is the familiar water-boatman,5 though
Notonectida
other tiny specieswhich
lives in the mud
there is one
British
"
1
3
2
Reduvius
personatus.
Series Cryptocerata.
4
E.g., Capsus laniarius.
glauca.
Nepa cinerea.
6$Notonecta
BUGS
at
the
swims
of shallow
bottom
on
The
waters.
under
its back
49
water,
and
"
"
boatman
is very
agile,
practised
using its long hind-legswith the skill of a
sculler,but comes
frequentlyto the surface to breathe
and when
submerged carries a supply of air entangled
all other waterthe hairs of its body. Like
among
It feeds on
aquatic
bugs, Notonecta is carnivorous.
a good-sized
creatures, and is strong enough to master
A prick from its sucking beak
is almost as
minnow.
painfulas a bee's sting.
there are
of which
The
British
numerous
Corixidtz,
be represented by Covixa geoffvoyi.At
species,may
first glance this insect might be confused
with the
water-boatman, but it may be known
by the fact that
is not overlapped by the pronothe back of the head
in Notonecta.
Both
species have
tum, as is the case
well-developed wings, and are thus able to fly from
Their habits are
also
one
pond or lake to another.
to be more
similar,although Covixa seems
completely
the water, and comes
less frequently
beneath
at home
to
the surface.
second
sub-order
of the
Hemiptera includes the
frog-hoppers,aphides, scale insects,and their allies.
called
first
at
seem
Homoptera, and
They are
sight to be a rather mixed
assemblage ; but they
in several
Unlike
the
important features.
agree
the
face
Heteroptera, the front part of the head
slopes stronglybackwards, so that the mouth-parts,
The
"
"
"
"
when
not
in
use,
are
in contact
the
fore-legs.Moreover,
firmer in texture
distinctlyhardened
repose, the wings do
less
roof-wise
over
than
at
not
the
with
the
of the
coxae
fore-wings,though
the hind-wings,
are
their
bases; while,
lie flat,but are
held
abdomen.
In
times
somenever
when
more
their
in
or
life-
BRITISH
50
INSECTS
histories the
Homoptera are
Heteroptera. The
the
than
often
different
very
regarded as
from
the
larvae.
true
insects,the last moult
like stage, when
advanced
evidentlymore
newly-hatchedyoung are
the
Moreover,
is
and
parents,
the
among
preceded by
be
may
scale
definite pupa-
a
remains
quiescent,and
So far as is known, all the Homoptera
takes no food.
feed on the juicesof plants. The various families are
often arranged in three series
viz.,Trimera, Dimera,
creature
"
and
Monomera
according
"
cicadas,1 so
feed
is said to
number
of
these
the
tropicalcountries,are represented
singlespecies. As a nymph it
a
the
at
a
of bracken.
roots
in the
New
The
Forest
development of
which
we
have
recognizedby
the
of
only
where
elsethe
two
the remarkable
which
pronotum,
adult
and
great rarity. Members
family M"ribrarida, of
examples,may be at once
above
Of
in
by
it is
three-jointed
five families.
into
occasionallycaptured
; but
with
Homoptera
or
numerous
in Britain
is
usual
sal
joints.
The
Trimera,
divided
tarsi, are
tar
the
to
extends
This
is
wings and abdomen.
in the photographs of Centvotus cornutus on
well shown
The
three remaining families of this series
Plate VI.
insects,mostly small, which are
comprise numerous
The
known
collectivelyas "hoppers."
Fulgorida,
which are related to the large,exotic
lantern-flies,"
characterized
are
by having their short three-jointed
backwards
the
"
inserted
antennas
the
Cevcopidce
beneath
the
spring
antennae
in the
eyes ; whereas
between the eyes.
from
of the nymphs
family some
protect
the wellthemselves
by a copious frothy secretion
adults
known
known
are
as
cuckoo-spit." The
In
the
latter
"
"
1
Cicadidte.
VI.
m
m
1
"
"
CUCKOO-SPIT
"
CUCKOO-SPIT
INSECTS
(Philcenus)
Centrotus
Much
cornutus
magnified
BROWN
CURRANT
SCA.LI
(Lccanimm)
APHIDES
51
also includes
the
frog-hoppers"; but this name
be distinguishedby
of which
members
lassidce,
may
In Cercopidathe pronotheir triangularscutellum.
the hind-margin. This
has an angular notch
tum
on
is accordingly
receives part of the scutellum,which
"
in outline.
rhomboidal
The
series
members
whose
Dimera,
have
two-
jointed tarsi,comprises three families. The
fly,"
greenand
or
so
aphides,1are so numerous
plant-lice,
of cultivated plants,that they
harmful
to all kinds
"
are
certain facts connected
; but
everyone
and
increase
development are less well
familiar to
their
with
known.
life-cycleof
typicalaphis may be
follows : Eggs are
laid in the
as
brieflysummarized
the twigs or bark of plants. From
autumn
on
these,
in the spring,larvae hatch.
They rapidlycomplete
adult prove
their metamorphosis, and when
to be all
females, vested with the remarkable
faculty of parthenogene
or
virgin reproduction. They are also
sive
Succesviviparous i.e.,
they produce livingyoung.
generationsof these self-contained females appear
some
being wingless,while
throughout the summer,
others are winged, and thus able to flyfrom one
plant
The
last generation of the year comto another.
prises
both
males
and oviparous females, the latter
laying the eggs that are destined to start the next
the usual
are
facts; but the
year's attack. These
of some
aphides extends
complete life-cycle
over
include periodic migrations
several years, and
may
distinct kinds of plants. In fine, the
two
between
life-stories of aphides are
more
complicated than
The
a
"
those
for
of them
of any other insect,and many
still call
elucidation.
Some
the
wellspecies, such as
1
Aphida.
BRITISH
52
known
a
woollyaphis"
"
in
substance
waxy
live
flakes, and
currant-blister
"
to
INSECTS
the
form
beneath
it.
aphis
2
"
abnormal
galls(i.e.,
by
all
In
roots.
Others,
which
growths)
arrested,owing
exchange, being
blocked
by
the
leaves, stems,
on
plants are
their stomata,
to
of
or
instanced,give rise
sucking out of their
the
functioning of
instances
many
threads
be
may
secrete
blight,"1
of delicate
the infested
cases
continual
the
American
"
or
or
weakened
while
in
leaves
is
;
sap
the
pores
or
for gaseous
the
stickydischarge of
This
the
insects.
substance, called
honey-dew,"
was
formerly thought to be excreted
through two
which
situated on
the backs of
are
tubes, or cornicles,
known
issue from
to
aphides ; but it is now
many
the anal opening of the alimentarycanal.
The
two
remaining families of the series Dimera
the
snow-flies."4
are
jumping plant-lice"3and the
The former have three ocelli (trueaphides have none),
and are further distinguishedby their habit of jumping.
The
common
apple-sucker5 is often abundant
"
"
in
"
orchards,
snow-flies
and
on
resemble
wings are
speciesis
One
various
miniature
The
have
with
sometimes
of
moths,
fine
a
found
in
cabbage, and
insects
rise and
snowflakes
mischief.
much
tiny white
covered
kinds
the
shaken,
it does
where
whence
bloom.
or
numbers
enormous
float in
bodies
whose
powder
when
Adult
the
the
plants are
air
like
the
popular name.
are
earlystages of the life-history
peculiar,and
ever,
not been
fullyinvestigated.It is known, howthat the young
it remains
of
1
3
a
"
insect secretes
beneath
this
leaf,until
the
Schizoneura
Psyllidcc.
scale,and
that
fixed to the underside
protection,
metamorphosis is complete.
lanigera.
*
a
2
A hurodidtz.
Rkopalosiphumribis.
5
Psyllamali.
INSECTS
BRITISH
54
which
of
secretion
part.
Other
scale,1
and
For
the
termed
"
lice
"
the
be
must
found
creatures
They
here.
stitute
con-
and
Anoplura
the
insects
"
of
by
regarded
are
the
Heteroptera
apparently,
that
They
authorities
most
all
obvious
may
be
their
spend
blood
whose
1
Lccanium.
of
signs
defined
whole
they
as
lives
degradation
due,
"
is
"
relationship
small,
upon
so
insects,
bodies
of
Pulvinaria.
3
which
mammals,
suck.
2
great
obliterated.
are
wingless
the
allies
degenerate
as
parasitism
long-continued
to
"
their
but
;
on
3
loathsome
the
mentioned
of
order
tenth
both
a
brown
the
are
mealy-bugs."
"
bears
colony
scale,2
continuity,
of
the
family
the
the
also
of
cushion
cottony
sake
the
of
species
bushes,
currant
member
each
Dactylopius.
CHAPTER
ALDER-FLIES,
SNAKE
AND
flies,
differed
their
of
elsewhere
their
modern
naturalists,
the
sure
only
tern,
pro
"
fit in
"
not
that
agreed
part
as
with
and
become
may
present
this
connect
to
the
insects
the
antennae
form,
order
the
of
the
is
is to
the
"
most
insects
will
rank
it
of
growth
it
discovered,
are
these
of
divisions
visional
pro-
but
;
at
lacewings,
their
and
in
of
are
four
nearly
55
includes
Neuroptera
besides
allies, which,
Britain.
In
biting
the
long, many-jointed,
always
for
plan
larger
represented
mouth-parts
are
has
not
But
feasible.
is not
ant-lions
are
tribe
conveniently
many
alder-flies, snake-flies, and
interesting
adult
links
many
every
are
With
order.
in
and
relationship
group
safest
missing
with
its restricted
In
the
"
possible
orders
the
which
Neuroptera.
that
particular
a
others,
as
the
caddis-
to
forms
in
classification,
separate
a
knowledge,
if
of
fitted
with
to
company,
fact, almost
recognizing
guide
mixed
very
be
not
Neurop-
or
dragon-flies
In
could
insects,
life-histories,
marshalled
was
LACEWINGS,
variety
structure.
that
insects
a
and
great
a
in
greatly
details
of
including
and
of
consist
to
stone-flies
from
ranging
of British
order
used
tera,
-FLIES,
SCORPION-FLIES
eleventh
THE
V
and
similar
tunately,
unforall these
type.
slender.
wings
the
The
The
traversed
56
by
INSECTS
BRITISH
complex
a
held
are
net
roof-wise
veining, and
over
in
insect's
the
repose
back.
the
wings
phosis
Metamor-
is
complete, a quiescent pupal stage always
Moreover, in this .order
preceding the final moult.
we
introduced
are
wings
are
rudiments
stage is
their
or
first time
for the
to
insects whose
developed inwardly (p. 12), the wingpads not being visible until the pupal
"
"
The
reached.
are
young
very
different from
"larvae."
rightly be termed
They are usuallyactive,with well-developedthoracic
legs. Their mandibles are often grooved on the inner
edges,and through these grooves liquidscan be drawn
into the mouth.
Thus, while these larvae are typically
mandibulate
of them
insects,many
really feed by
suction.
So
all the species are
far as
is known,
carnivorous,both in their larval and adult stages.
British Neuroptera are
divided into five families.
The alder-flies,1
of which
have several species,
we
are
dull-coloured insects.
They may be represented by
the common
which
alder-fly,2
figuresin the angler's
list. The female
laysher eggs in clusters on rushes
or
water.
Immediately after
usually near
grasses,
the nearest
their way
to
hatching,the larvae make
pond or stream, and thereafter lead an aquatic life.
but are
They have no spiracles,
provided with pairs
of jointedgill-filaments
the first seven
on
segments of
the abdomen, and a long unjointed gill-process
at its
of these appendages the larva breathes
tip. By means
the air which
to
exist
feeds
grown
and
parents,
out
is dissolved
of
in the earth
water,
in
in
a
; and
water
damp
it is also able
environment.
aquatic larvae, and when
After burying
of the water.
out
it changes to the pupa, from which
chieflyon
creeps
may
small
2
Sialis lutaria.
It
full
itself
the
VIL
I
Si
SNAKE-FLIES
57
The
life of
ultimately emerges.
adult is short, being limited
to a few
days ; but
has
precise duration of the complete life-history
perfect insect
yet been
ascertained
"
far,at least,as
so
the
the
the
not
writer is
aware.
The
snake-flies1
curious
are
easily recognizable
in the
of the remarkable
velopme
deperfect state, because
of the prothorax and the back of the head,
which
Indeed, the
together form a kind of "neck."
fore-partof the insect is very suggestiveof a snake
the popular name.
whence
The
female has a long,
slender ovipositor,and
to lay her eggs in old
appears
"
timber
or
bark, for
under
places. They are
rapidlybackwards
with
the
utmost
active
when
the
larvae
are
found
little creatures, which
alarmed,
voracity.
Yet
and
they are
in such
wriggle
their prey
able to sustain
hunt
tion
long fasts,and we may infer from this that the duraof the life-history
or
depends upon the abundance
scarcityof the food-supply,as is the case with some
other
insects.
of the
The
larva
snake-fly,"says
is remarkably
Dr. Sharp,
that
changes to a pupa
intermediate
in form
the perfect insect and
between
the larva ; the eyes, legs,wing-pads, and
ovipositor
being but little different from those of the imago,
while
the general form
the
is that of the larva, and
peculiarelongation of the neck of the imago is absent.
This pupa
differs from
that of Sialis in the important
particular that before undergoing its final ecdysis (or
and is able to run
about."
moult) it regainsits activity,
The three or four British speciesof the genus
Raphidia
said to be rare,
districts,and are
frequent wooded
though their apparent
scarcityis probably due in
size and
to their small
large measure
retiringhabits.
"
"
INSECTS
BRITISH
58
Like
supposed rarities,
they can generally
be found when
searched
for in suitable localities,
due
regard being paid to time and season.
other
many
We
come
now
families whose
to two
under the popular name
collectively
because of the extremelycomplex
veiningdisplayedby their wings.
Hemerobiida.
It includes
members
of
pass
"lacewings,"
and
beautiful
The
firstis known
net-
British
several
species,
which may
be distinguished
by their moderately long
numerous
antennae, whose
joints,when
magnified,
Two
sub-families are
resemble
a
string of beads.
recognized viz.,Osmylince(in which simple eyes are
simple eyes are
present),and Hemcfobiina (inwhich
absent). The 0$myUn" are represented by Osmylns
in the New
which is not uncommon
Forest,
chrysops,
as
"
its larvae live under
where
weeds
have
upon
or
actuallyin water.
damp situations,
They
long, slender mandibles, or
sucking-spears,"
which
they pierce and empty the small insects
which
they prey.
According to Dr. Sharp, the
It is
spinningapparatus at
assumption of the pupa
a
round
cocoon
second
and
in the autumn
it attains full growth.
some
and
moss
among
in
larva is hatched
its
or
"
with
and
stones
provided with
the tail-end ;
of silk mixed
with
have
a
very
sand
rather
moth-like
before
silk
glands
and, priorto
state, it forms
x
comprises
sub-family
of which
hibernates
a
small
grains.
small
The
insects,
appearance.
frequent plants and hunt aphides,which
with
themselves
they suck dry. Some of them cover
the empty skins of their victims,to which
fragments
thus go about
be added, and
of vegetablematter
may
pletely
bearing a load of d6bris by which they are often comWhen
full fed, the larva
hidden
from view.
spins a cocoon.
The
larvae
1
Hemeroliincs.
BRITISH
60
its
feeding is
over,
the
INSECTS
larva
spins
a
round
cocoon,
compared with
strangely small when
its maker, or with the perfectinsect which
eventually
the
from
it through a small hole, to which
emerges
the
attached
like a lid. Judged from
remains
cover
economic
standpoint,the Chrysopid lacewings are of
considerable
insects,
importance,for they are common
and
their larvae must
destroy myriads of aphides or
green-fly each season.
The
last family of British
Neuroptera is called
They are all tinyinsects,with antennae
Coniopterygida.
much
longer than the body. The wings have a very
veins, while the hindsimple neuration,with few cross
wings are much smaller than those of the front pair.
with a
covered
Moreover, the body and wings are
The
larvae frequent plants,
peculiar white bloom.
and
and
resemble
those
of lacewings in their form
feed
to
metamorphosis. They have been observed
which
appears
"
"
minute
on
The
scale insects.
twelfth
consists
order
of British insects,the
Mecaptera,
used to
a familywhich
scorpion-flies,1
insects disbe included with the Neuroptera. These
play
in their structure
and
certain unique features
and
their relationshipto other orders
life-histories,
has
of the
yet been
not
The
demonstrated.
front part of the
is very long and narrow,
forming a kind of beak,
mandibles
the small, toothed
at the tip of which
are
head
inserted.
The
first maxillae
are
jointed palpi; while the second
maxillae,which are not speciallylong,are completely
fused to form the labium
lower lip. The antennae
or
are
long,slender,and many-jointed. The four wings
traversed by many
are
veins,and (inthe comnarrow,
and
bear
five
gated,
considerablyelon-
1
PanorpidcB
6l
SCORPION-FLIES
mottled
species)strikingly
British
mon
is
however,
lives in
membrane.
the transparent
patches upon
wingless. It
as
stones, and
under
and
moss
is known
has
with
brown
One
species,
Boreus
hiemalis,
been
variously
wingless
minute
and
a
large flea
grasshopper." The length of the female, inclusive
is less than
her rather
a
long ovipositor,
quarter
likened
an
to
a
"
"
"
of
of
inch.
which are not uncommon
winged scorpion-flies,
in woods, all belong to the genus
Panorpa. In the
is curiouslymodified,
males the tip of the abdomen
the back like the tail of a
and is usuallycarried over
the popular name.
Scorpion-flies
scorpion whence
undergo a complete metamorphosis, the larva being of
and
the caterpillar
type, but with the antennae
eyes
three
pairs of
unusually prominent. They have
thoracic legs,and (except in Boreus)a pair of prolegs
Their
each of the first eight abdominal
on
segments.
not
mandibles
are
grooved for suction. These facts
known
first made
were
by the Austrian entomologist,
to
induced
deposit their
scorpion-flies
Brauer, who
sequentl
damp earth in a covered vessel, and subeggs on
of their
reared the larvae. They spent most
time burrowing in the earth beneath
pieces of meat
In a wild state
that had been provided for their food.
the surface of the soil,where they
they are found near
insects.
probably feed upon dead animals, especially
larvae of Panorpa communis,
also found
Brauer
many
associated with ants, in a decayed tree-stump that was
The
"
quite covered
with
active for about
become
some
a
The
do
not
adults
they capture livinginsects.
are
larvae
are
said
to
be
hatching. Then they
change to the pupa for
also carnivorous, but
after
month
but
quiescent,
weeks.
The
moss.
CHAPTER
VI
BEETLES
insects
of
be
recognized
These
act
hind-wings
thoracic
united.
scutellum
is
The
hind
legs
are
cuticle,
developed
are
after
the
larva
often
constructs
"
are
not
This
Upwards
immovably
thickening
is
a
of 3,400
classification
of the
this
do
powerful.
outer
lying
by
greatly
with
The
visible
full-grown
is
pupa
close
a
"
the
to
general
army
of
order
been
have
is
a
wings
free
far
ing
harden-
insects.
described.
from
"
body,
skin.
species
62
Their
differ
The
The
largest
vast
coxae
become
not
the
and
creatures
moult.
thereto
the
British
of
active
cocoon.
fixed
of
the
larvae
the
and
though
probably
large
while
but
soft, legless grubs.
penultimate
i.e.,its appendages,
and
The
to
inwardly,
until
and
first
the
bases
shape,
the
very
metamorphosis.
from
ranging
are
of
the
always
varied,
of
generally large,
in
complete
a
maxillae
between
almost
are
The
use.
those
plate
is
greatly
vary
very
appearance,
hardened
visible
often
in
unlike
dorsal
elytra.
or
membranous
not
second
The
undergo
life-stories
the
always
wings,
the
are
not
are
(pronotum)
pair
Beetles
in
but
segment
of the
they
mouth-parts
Orthoptera,
elytra.
when
which
order
almost
may
fore-
beneath
folded
are
intimately
a
thickened
covers,
mandibulate
order
their
thirteenth
the
up
viz., Coleoptera)
"
by
as
make
(which
BEETLES
com-
VIII.
N
STAG-BEETLE,
UNDERSIDE
(Lucanus)
TIMBERMAN-BEETLE
(A canthocinus)
WATER-BEETLE
(Dytiscus)
GLOW-WORM
BEETLE,
MALE
(Lampyris)
AND
FEMALE
63
BEETLES
for
plete;
although
beetle
a
from
details of beetle
review
the
of
the
"
order
these
the
Coleoptera is
natural
"
are
or
-
guish
distin-
insect,the
their
own
into which
series,
by Dr.
i.e.,they
divided
"
of
to
prove very difficult to
this chapter we
may
of
purpose
the six great groups,
briefly
For
kind
easy
branchingsof
often
"
always
other
any
kinship
to speak
familytree, so
follow.
it is almost
Sharp.
denote
Five
actual
families concerned
the
; but the
relationshipamong
sixth,which we shall treat last,is admittedlya kind
of lumber-room
relegateduntil
to
which
their true
numerous
families have
standing can
been
be ascertained.
the
Adephaga includes
tiger-beetles,
and
carnivorous
water-beetles,which
ground-beetles,
have
are
tarsi,while the antennae
simple
five-jointed
of a series of nearlysimilar joints.
in form, consisting
The
galea,or outer lobe, of each first maxilla is twoa
palpus. The active larvae
jointed,and resembles
claws to each
have six well-developedlegs,with two
series
The
tarsus.
be
represented by the
which
common
frequents
green Cincindela campestvis^
The
larva
sandy spots during the early summer.
and blocks the
forms a perpendicularshaft in dry soil,
with its head and thorax, supportingitself by
entrance
its fifth
situated upon
of a pair of hooks
means
insect approaches, the
abdominal
When
an
segment.
tiger throws back its head with a rapidjerk,seizes
the victim with its sickle-shapedjaws, and drags it to
tiger-beetles1
may
The
"
"
the bottom
The
British
1
of the burrow.
ground-beetle family2 comprises numerous
families
species,which are divided into several subis a familiar
The large violet ground-beetle3
CicindelidcB.
2
Carabida.
3
Carabus
violaceus
It is
example.
while
The
INSECTS
BRITISH
64
heavilybuilt
more
smaller
its eyes
are
littlebombardier-beetle1
than
a
tiger-beetle,
far less prominent
and
also be mentioned,
must
of self-defence.
It is
singularmethod
of the family,and
preyed upon by larger members
chased
when
ejects a drop of volatile and explosive
fluid from the tip of its abdomen, thus disconcerting
Most
and their larvae are
its pursuer.
ground-beetles
in
nocturnal in habit,and hide by day under stones
or
crevices of the soil. The
majority are predaceous,
few remarkable
but there
are
a
exceptions,several
speciesfeedingon rootlets and seeds.
be typified
water-beetles
The carnivorous
by
may
Dytiscusmarginalis^often called the
great waterIts structure
beetle."
agrees
very closelywith that
the details are
of a ground-beetle,but
beautifully
the
requirements of a life that is
adjusted to meet
The
insect is an
in the water
expert
spent chiefly
swimmer
and diver, and preys exclusivelyon aquatic
creatures.
Nevertheless, it has well-developedwings,
and frequentlyflies by nightfrom one
pond or lake to
beneath
the elytra,the
Its spiraclesopen
another.
edges of which fit closelyagainst the sides of the
the back.
abdomen, enclosingan air-tight
space above
because
of its
2
"
This
space
serves
as
a
reservoir for air.
Moreover,
posteriorpairs of spiraclesare uncommonly
large, so that by thrusting its tail-end through the
surface-film into the atmosphere, and slightly
depressing
the insect can
the tip of its abdomen,
rapidly
discharge the vitiated air from its tracheal system
and take in a fresh supply. The
Dytiscus larva is
are
pointed and
extremely rapacious. Its mandibles
of
tubular, and it feeds by suction, after the manner
the
two
1
Brachinus
crepitans.
2
Dytiscidce.
66
BRITISH
is very
INSECTS
in the autumn,
short,is accomplished
and
the
out
throughquietlyin the cocoon
the winter and
spring,emerging in June or July
have two
smaller
We
of the succeedingyear.
species
of Lucanida
in Britain, but the mandibles
of their
males are not conspicuouslydeveloped.
The second Lamellicorn
family1includes the chafers,
The
familiar
most
dung-beetles, and rose-beetles.
some
example is the cockchafer, or
May-bug,"2 a handThe
insect,but unfortunately
very destructive.
perfectinsect
remains
"
larvae
and
The
of grass and cultivated crops,
the leaves of oaks and other trees.
the roots
consume
the adults
eat
exhibit
male
of the
antennae
the
"
lamellated
"
worthy of
close examination.
The clubbed
part is composed of
in the female the corresponding,
seven
pieces,whereas
but much
smaller, platesnumber
only six.
confines
The well-known
rose-beetle3 by no
means
in
character
itself to
and
marked
a
the flower
devours
whose
the leaves
and
The
bushes.
roots, but
they
seem
are
it bears, but
name
includingraspberries and
been known
to stripwhole
currant
and
degree,
blossoms
of many
strawberries, while
of broad
rows
attacks
plants,
it has
beans
and
devour
living
occasionally
decaying
usually to feed on
in heaps of
often be found
may
larvae
vegetablematter, and
of
leaf mould.
They form compact, oval cocoons
It
earth or wood-chips before changing to the pupa.
is interesting
that a closely
allied rose-beetle4
to note
is found
The
in ants'
nests.
dung-beetles5are
Probably the
1
Scarab"ida
3
Cftonia
6
A
of considerable
best known
aurata.
is the
2
Melolontha
*
C.
,
sub-familyof the Scarabaidce.
economic
"
dumble-
vulgaris.
floricola.
portance
im-
BEETLES
dor,"1 which
often be
may
67
towards
especially
flight,
and
summer
male
the
In
larvae, an
with
for the
made
of insects
group
of them
much
most
species,
fifty
of
part
of
distribution
Members
front
and
of the
in
each
than
of
the two
insignificant
securing a rapid
no
in the soil.
nitrogenous matter
of the series Heteromera
all other beetles
from
smaller
for
machinery
Nature's
needs
comprises upwards
It constitutes
named.
been
in
matter.
female
the
This
that have
burrows
stercoraceous
being laid by
egg
burrow.
Typh"us vulgaris
their allies,
make
ground,and stock them
this way
provisionis
the
allied
the
a
species,and
these
evening, during the late
its thorax
strikingappearance,
very
with three stout, forward-directed
horns.
has
being armed
Both
In
autumn.
in strong but blundering
seen
are
distinguished
the fact that the tarsi of the
pairs of legs are five-jointed,
while
middle
by
pair are four-jointed.One of the
largestBritish speciesis the dull black Blapsmucronata,
those
of the
often
called
Its
the
cellar
along
their
wing-covers,"but
The
abdomen.
of various
appearance
as
not
being,in
itself is too
"
"
or
a
kind
larva, which
kinds, is
"
"
churchyard beetle.
rudimentary,and the elytraare
middle
edges, thus serving not as
"
hind-wings are
united
"
hind
unlike
of
shield
feeds
on
above
waste
the
matter
in
large meal-worm
fact,nearlyrelated. The mealworm
well
known
a
to
need
introduction
;
told that this
but many
people express surprisewhen
of a
beetle.
Besides
pest is the youthful form
damaging
meal
and
flour,this larva is
of several
one
biscuits,
renderingthem
weevily.
kinds
of meal-worm
There
beetles.
are
reallytwo
is probably indigenous;
One, called Tencbrio molitor,
kinds which
infest
1
"
steroorarius.
Geotrupes
BRITISH
68
INSECTS
other, T. obscurus,is said
the
well-known
Another
be
often
under
bark
other
insects
seen
beetle is
not
the
on
"
For
of
back
to
a
bee.
bee's
the
Heteromera
the
of eggs
off-chance,so
newly-hatchedlarvae
home
discover.
to
example,
numbers
laysenormous
the
able
been
The
adult
notoriouslyrapacious.
complex.
10,000
Its
are
life-stories of the
The
sunshine.
remarkably flat,are found
whether
but
they feed on wood, or on
which
frequent similar situations,the
;
has
writer
introduced
species is the
insect, which
active
very
flying in the hot
which
larvae,
whitish
very
Heteromerous
a
cardinal-beetle,1
scarlet
may
been
flour.
American
with
have
to
may
A
to
oil-beetle2
common
perhaps
"
say, that
contrive
lucky
to
"
larva
as
"
form-changes which
in detail here.
Suffice
it to
eat
itself with
ing
astonish-
an
be
cannot
on
carried
first to
one
series of
of the
lift
a
is thus
then
to gorge
of its host's eggs, and
involves
honey. The complete life-cycle
as
many
few
a
get
it appears
nest, where
sometimes
are
described
say that the larva,after
of the Lamellicorn
type,
becoming a fat,curved grub
false pupa."
It then rests and takes no
changes to a
food ; but a second
period of activityfollows before
The
adult Meloe is
the true
pupal stage is reached.
found
feeding on herbage in the springtime. It is
blister-beetle/'
nearly related to the beautiful green
which
is occasionallyseen
in the
or
Spanish-fly,"3
Both these insects are
Counties.
Southern
protected
from the attacks of birds,etc., by a caustic secretion
"
"
u
is extracted
which
under
1
the
name
from
their bodies
and
used
of cantharidine.
2 Meloe
proscarab
Pyrochroa coccinea.
3
Lytta vesicatoria.
"us.
cally
medi-
69
BEETLES
In
Phytophaga the tarsi of all the legs
but close inspectionreveals
to be four-jointed,
appear
the presence
of a very
small fifth joint at the base
of the fourth.
The three basal jointsof each tarsus
are
usually clothed beneath with a dense,velvety pile.
The
which
are
composed of a series of
antennae,
simple joints,are
generallyrather long, sometimes
without
long. The
Phytophaga feed, almost
very
be
exception, on
vegetable substances, and
may
divided into three families
viz.,the seed-feeders,1the
stem-feeders.3
The
and
the woodand
leaf-feeders,2
last are often called Longicornia, or
long-horns."
The Bruchidce*
be represented by the common
may
whose
pea-seed-beetle,6
grub feeds and pupates in a
in
The leaf-feeders6 are
mostly oval and convex
pea.
shape, often brightlycoloured with a metal-like polish:
but our
It is
largest species7 is dull blue-black.
known
popularlyas the
bloody-nosebeetle,"because,
when
it ejectsa largedrop of clear red fluid
irritated,
from
the mouth.
The
pretty little Chrysomelapolita
(shininggreen thorax and legs,and red-brown
elytra)
is often abundant
also other
in grassy places,where
All Chrysomelid
species of the genus may be found.
feed
larvae have
well-developed thoracic legs, and
openly on the foliageof plants. The
poplar- and
the
series
"
"
"
willow-leaf-beetle8
occurs
in all stages, from
egg
to
it bears, the
names
perfectinsect,on the trees whose
being attached by its tail to a leaf. This species,
pupa
and the closelysimilar M.
sometimes
cause
longicollis,
serious damage in osier-beds,
in the South
especially
of England.
1
4
7
Bruchida.
Also called
Timarcha
2
Lariidcz.
Icevigata.
6
8
Chrysomelidce.
Bruchuspisi.
Melasoma
bo-buli.
3
6
CerambycidcB.
Chrysomelida.
70
BRITISH
INSECTS
Other
Chrysomelid species are the dainty little
the much-dreaded
Colorado-beetle,
asparagus-beetle,1
or
the diminutive
turnip and
potato-bug,"2and
Indeed, very
cabbage fleas of the genus Phyllotreta.
members
of the family are
highlyinjuriousto
many
cultivated crops.
The attractively
coloured, riverside
beetles of the genus
Donacia
happily, free from
are,
this stigma. Their
life-stories present some
very
unusual
features. The larvae feed on the submerged
of aquatic plants. Their
roots
method
of breathing
is peculiar,for they have
two
sharp-pointed tubular
the tipof the abdomen, and
near
by driving
processes
these into the air-spacesof the plant'stissues they
"
"
"
contrive
So
to
far
known
sufficient oxygen
writer
is aware,
no
the
as
Before
the
leavingthe Chrysomelidcz,
beetles of the genus
and
other
When
at
a
curious
distinct group
insect's body and
very
rest, the
are
tortoise-
be mentioned.
Cassida must
their allies constitute
insects
food-plants!
of their
breathe at the expense
to
for their needs.
extract
They
or
family.
sub-
its appendages
common
completelyhidden beneath the pronotum
elytra,which are unusually broad and flat. The
looks more
found upon thistles,
Cassida viridis,
like
a
are
and
small
green
livinginsect.
have
the
their
own
The
larvae
the
on
of
stern
or
this and
leaf than
other
a
kind
excrement,
the
matter
of fork, situated
at
the
a
species
strange habit of covering their bodies
dried
place by
blister
with
being held in
tremity.
posteriorex-
Longicorns3 may be easilyrecognizedby their
oblong form, long antennae, and kidney-shaped eyes.
hard
and
heads
The typicallarvae of the familyhave
The
1
Cnoceris
2
asparagi.
3
Cemmby
DoryphorA decemlineata.
tides.
BEETLES
71
or have
powerfulmandibles,and are either legless,
only
small
legs. Their bodies are soft and fleshy,
very
in colour, broadest
white or yellowish-white
in front,
and
flattened.
of them
Most
generally somewhat
in dead
burrow
or
decaying wood, but a few attack
The full-fed larva usuallyconstructs
a
livingstems.
of chips before changing to the pupa.
cocoon
The majorityof our
indigenousLongicorns are rare,
abundant
but three or four are
to attract
sufficiently
popular attention. One of these is the so-called waspand other flowers
beetle,1which
frequentswild roses
Its coloration
black, with
during the earlysummer.
its
yellow bands
suggests that of a wasp, whence
The
tunnel
in decaying posts
name.
larvae,which
"
"
the
or
of dead
stumps
trees, take
several
years
unfavourable
to
to
growth, and in conditions
able to prolong their larval
their development seem
life almost indefinitely.
The
poplar long-horn2places its eggs beneath the
bark of young aspen twigs,within which the larvae feed
istic
for nearly two
years, each giving rise to a characteror
swelling,
gall." The pine long-horn3 is of ten
in fir woods, where
abundant
on
warm
days in June it
be seen
the trees, or running over
flyingamong
may
the
the bark of which
logs or dead trunks, beneath
attain full
"
larvae feed
The
beautiful
also be mentioned.
suggests, it emits
name
a
sufficiently
strong to be detected
from
trees
(usuallyold, pollarded
distance
some
its
must
that is
pleasingodour
at
As
musk-beetle4
green
willows),in which itbreeds. The most remarkable of all
British long-horns,
however, is the timberman-beetle,6
which
at
occurs
Rannoch, in Perthshire, and other
1
Clytusarietis.
*
A romi
a
2
Saperdapopulnea.
moschata.
5
3
Rhagium bifasciatum.
Acanthocinus
cedilis.
BRITISH
72
INSECTS
conspicuous for the
in the male.
enormous
lengthof the antennae, especially
The series Rhynchophora comprises the beetles that
known
are
They differ from all
popularlyas weevils.
other
Coleoptera in having four-jointed tarsi ; or,
rather, the tarsi appear to be four-jointed,
though in
additional (orfifth)
a minute
jointis present at
reality
The head is elongated
the extreme
base of the fourth.
localities in
in front to
form
a
beak
is
It
Scotland.
or
rostrum
"
sometimes
short
which
long, thin, and arched
carries the mouth-parts at its apex.
The
larva is a
before
a
cocoon
legless grub, and
usually forms
feed exclusivelyon
Weevils
changing to the pupa.
vegetable substances, and it has been said that there
is no
part of any plant, or its products, that their
and
thick, sometimes
larvae do not
Most
"
attack.
British
weevils
belong
to
the
great family
spring from the
with a long, basal
i.e.,
rostrum, are
usuallyelbowed
oint,to which the other
jointsare attached, like the
thong of a whip. The nut- weevil1 is notable for its
of
immensely long and slender rostrum, by means
which the female bores holes in green nuts when
they
are
depositingan egg in each\
very young, afterwards
The
apple-blossom weevil2 treats the flower-buds of
and
its larva feeds on
the apple in a similar manner,
the essential parts of the bloom, with the result that
and
rice weevils3
no
apple is produced. The corn
destructive in another
are
even
more
sphere. They
infest wheat, barley,rice,etc., have
merce
spread with comhave
sometimes
to all parts of the world, and
of grain which
rendered almost valueless whole cargoes
Cuvculionidce.
Their
which
antennae,
"
1
Balaninus
nucum.
3
Calandra
2
A nthonomus
granaria and
C. oryzce.
pomorum.
BRITISH
74
burrow
in this way
and
outwards,
patterns
wood.
INSECTS
are
traced
upon
curious
surface
the
Each
grub pupates at the end
perfectinsect eventuallybores
and
the
the
bark
in order
and
acteristic
char-
of the
of its burrow,
a
hole
through
of the
effect its escape.
One
Another
speciesis the elm-bark-beetle.1
commonest
to
is the
which
does much
pine-bark-beetle,2
damage
its perfectstate by burrowing into the young
shoots
the Scots pine in order to feed, be it noted, since
"
laid beneath
eggs are
above.
The
the bark in the
in
of
the
described
manner
series
attention.
claims our
Polymorpha now
have alreadyseen
We
that it can
onlybe characterized
do not belong to any of
by the fact that its members
the other five series. Only the more
and
interesting
here.
important families can be mentioned
cluded
inauthors
whirligigbeetles 3 are
by some
with the Adephaga, but they differ greatlyin
structure, notablyin having each compound eye divided
The
into two.
downwards,
-
One
thus
isolated
half
enablingthe
eye is directed
for its
to search
of each
insect
above ; for
aquatic prey ; the other half keeps watch
the water, except to
seldom
enter
whirligig-beetles
danger, but spend their days skimming rapidly
escape
the surface.
The larvae,however, are completely
over
of abdominal
aquatic, and breathe by means
gillof an
filaments, not unlike those
alder-flylarva.
full grown,
When
they leave the water and spin small
the leaves and stems
of plants.
papery cocoons
upon
Members
of the familyHydrophilidamay
be recognized
of the
by their long maxillary palpi. Some
speciesare completelyaquatic,while others frequent
marshy spots. The
majority are quite small, but
1
Scolytusdestructor.
2
Hylurguspiniptrda.
3
Gyrinida.
BEETLES
75
"
harmless
water-beetle
of
Hydrophilus piceus the
the aquarium
is one
of the largestBritish beetles.
When
plate
submerged, this insect carries a kind of breastof air,which
is held in place by velvetytracts on
the underside
of the body. It replenishesthis supply
small air-bubbles with
periodically
by dragging down
its antennae, the terminal jointsof which are broad and
littlescoops.
as
Although the adults
hairy,and serve
feed chieflyon
vegetable matter, the larvae attack
"
"
"
other insects,and
very voracious.
includes more
than
familySilphidce
The
are
hundred
one
British
species,which vary considerablyin size and
form.
clubbed
antennae, which
They have straight,
are
usuallycomposed of eleven joints. Most of them
feed on
The
decaying animal or vegetable matter.
of the genus Necrophorus
sexton-, or burying-beetles,
familiar examples.
So also are
the flat-looking
are
members
which
of the genus Silpha,
are
mostly carrionto eat
two
or
feeders,though one
speciesare known
the leaves of livingplants.
tails,"1
cockIn the great family of the rove-beetles,
or
the elytra are
very short, covering only a
"
small
part
of
The
abdomen.
the
antennae
are
moderatelylong,very graduallythickened towards
tip,and have usuallyeleven joints,but sometimes
or
nine.
even
The
"
devil's coach-horse"2
known
example ; but
of them
species,most
and
by
cause
there
during
annoyance
getting
into
small.
very
our
eyes
"
800
Many
the
they
best
British
flyfreely,
months
summer
when
ten
is the
about
are
the
are
called
to
very similar in appearance
be distinguishedby
but may
those of ground-beetles,
"
flies."
their
The
larvae
one-clawed
1
are
tarsi.
Staphylinidcs,
of
Members
2
this
family
Ocypusolens.
76
BRITISH
INSECTS
usually feed on other insects,molluscs, or worms
;
but some
specieseat carrion or vegetablesubstances.
have
Of the familyCoccinellidce we
upwards of forty
ladybirds, of
species,represented by the common
which
the
"
two-spot
"
L
and
the
"
seven-spot
"
2
are
The
larvae are
active
often
frequently seen.
called
plants during
niggers." They abound
upon
the summer
months, usually cast their skins three
times, and eventuallychange to pupae, which are fixed
members
of this
Most
by the tail to a leaf or stem.
family feed on aphides and other small, soft-bodied
insects,and thus render important service to mankind
;
but a few feed on
plants.
3 is one
bacon-beetle
The well-known
of the family
the larvae are
Dermestida, in which
usually clothed
dried
with long hairs.
Almost
all the speciesfeed on
animal
skins.
as
bacon, leather, and
matter, such
tive
Some, such as the museum-beetle,4 are very destruccollections.
The
to zoological
raspberry-beetle,5
however, is exceptional. The adults eat the essential
blooms, and the larvae
parts of raspberry and bramble
feed on the
receptacles of the fruit.
The
of
family Ptmidce also comprises a number
the
destructive
which
bread
or
species, among
beetle 6 stands conspicuous, since it feeds on
paste
of dried animal
almost
all kinds
stances.
or
vegetable submost
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
It
several
Most
even
consecutive
members
Anobium
has
of
domesticum
been
known
1
Coccinella
bipunctata.
2
C.
Dermestes
lardarius.
4
Anthrenus
6
subsist
septempunctata.
museorum.
Byturus tomentosus.
Anobium
for
generationson a diet of opium !
the
family,however, eat wood,
being the culprit usually re-
3
5
to
paniceum.
paniceum ; also called Sitodrepa
BEETLES
sponsible for
furniture.
"
the
This
"
"
worm-eaten
insect and
death-watches,"to
made
77
which
(p.33). They
have
condition
its allies
reference
the
habit
of
our
are
the
has
alreadybeen
common
of
strikingtheir
head
beneath
or
jaws against the wood
them, thus
is very
producing a regular ticking sound, which
mysterious to those who are unacquainted with its
true
cause.
grubs, like
In
this
those
familythe
of
the
larvae
series
are
soft,curved
Lamellicornia
in
miniature.
The
that
"soldier"
well-known
abound
and
"sailor"
beetles,1
are
plants during the summer,
bably
prothe most
familiar examples of the family LampyvidcB)or Malacodermida, as it is called by many
authors.
their allies is the glow-worm,2 remarkable
Among
The
male glowfor its light-giving
worm
powers.
has wings and
elytra,and flies well ; but the
female
the fullfrom
scarcely differs in appearance
that her legs and antennae
are
more
larva,save
grown
developed. The brightspots of lightthat we
perfectly
see
evenings are due chiefly
herbage on warm
among
to the presence
of female
glow-worms, and proceed
its tip,
from the underside of the abdomen, near
where
certain of the segments are
lighterin colour than the
the eggs, are
rest ; but all stages of the insect, even
of this familyare
in a less degree. Members
luminous
characterized by the softness of their integument.
especially
The
active larvae feed, according to their kind,
small molluscs, worms,
and a variety of decaying
on
on
substances.
"
of the family
click-beetles,"
skipjacks or
able
from their remarkElaterida,get their popular names
of jumping when
placed on their backs.
power
The
"
1
Telephorus.
"
2
Lampyris noctiluca.
BRITISH
78
The
and
is
there
process,"
this
forcing
the
air.
the
"
underside
of
larvae
The
a
the
which
wireworms,"
"prosternal
or
By suddenly
itself
the
into
high
click-beetles
common
injurious
so
of
cavity
or
hurl
to
are
mesothorax,
former.
groove
is able
beetle
the
of the
into
process
mesothorax,
the
to
dagger-like projection,
a
the
on
loosely jointed
is
prothorax
INSECTS
are
cultivated
to
crops.
Before
made
of
certain
little
the
order
separate
greatly
in
; the
majority, however,
and
The
mother's
latter
If the
to
antennas
The
its
and
change
to
female
male
insect.
be
should
and
Stylopid
escapes
active
and
some
visited
are
larvae
swarm
upon
bee,
a
of
them
soon
after
when
not
the
bees
of
the
but
within
insect.
conveyed
are
bee-grubs,
bee
and
whereas
parasite throughout
its host
becomes
and
free-flying
host
The
;
mouth-
worm-like,
into
bore
simultaneously
a
hind-
the
larvae
the
legless maggots.
remains
their
hatched
are
as
but
and
by
a
fore-wings
bodies
the
as
the
and
blind
markable
re-
them
regard
;
so
them
lengthwise
are
they
body,
nest,
twisted
within
lives
minute,
parasite develop
the
females
comprises
is
treat
branched
are
It
have
folded
are
insects, where
males.
males
curiously
and
their
spend
other
the
and
feeble.
parts
The
be
must
structure
entomologists
broad,
The
use.
whose
some
reduced
are
Stylopida.
insects
beetles.
aberrant
mention
chapter,
family
small
very
that
wings
this
concluding
a
its
the
its
life,
winged
VII
CHAPTER
caddis-flies
JL
order
distinct
They
Trichoptera).
but
details
many
doptera,
they
of
having
near
its
base,
which
jugum)
have
joints.
When
together
like
at
maxillae
unite
sucking
apparatus.
in
"
and
with
stones,
silk
well
spun
slender
rest,
the
the
The
feed
on
while
and
developed,
while
are
build
shells, pieces
the
to
vegetable
which
from
of the
the
form
of
mouth.
there
79
Their
are
two
many
brought
arc
which
fold
either
are
pairs
two
of
imperfect
an
have
biting
They
live
well-known
protective
stick, etc.,
ordinate
co-
side.
with
matter.
the
the
to
same
adults
larvae, however,
streams,
flight
antennae,
the
of the
(called
hind-wings,
of
lowest
margin
fore-wings
labrum
the
caddis-worms/'
small
are
with
and
ponds
long,
example,
process
wings
Lepi-
two
during
rudimentary,
very
mouth-parts,
little
two
above
the
hind
the
mandibles
The
fan-wise.
or
roof
a
For
serves
of the
action
Caddis-flies
absent
a
apparently
the
insects.
on
viz.,
"
indicate
structure
of
a
ance,
appear-
specialized
"
in
in
less
the
moths
fore-wings,
moth-like
members
the
with
agree
families
up
with
the
as
list
our
on
their
of
with
treated
now
only
scale-winged
"
or
are
not
are
relationship
actual
they
fourteenth
(the
included
formerly
were
but
Neuroptera,
BUTTERFLIES
AND
MOTHS,
CADDIS-FLIES,
fixed
of
cases
together
thoracic
strong
legs
hooks
BRITISH
80
at the
the
extremityof
creature
to
thread-like
the
its
which
trail from
and
to anchor
serve
Breathing
case.
circulates
water, which
the
abdomen,
gillsthat
segments,
INSECTS
is
certain
effected
of
the
by
dominal
ab-
constantly bathed with
freelyin the space between
are
larva's
body and the inner wall of its abode.
After feedingfor several months, the larva closes both
with a webbing of silk,and changes
ends of its case
free pupa
to
the
a
(p. 62), which closelyresembles
that it is equipped with
save
dibles.
powerful manmago,
The
and
After
the surface
are
of
up
some
to
bite
the
a
way
out
skin
pupal
of the case,
the
at
final
its escape, the pupa
swims
to
effecting
the water, using its middle
legs,which
developed like
climbs
serve
with
discarded
are
moult.
latter
oars
for
convenient
back,
the
stem
It
purpose.
or
post
;
then
its skin
perfect insect emerges.
about
the large
There
are
150 British caddis-flies,
species of the genus Phryganea (whose larvae inhabit
stillwaters)being most
likelyto attract attention.
and butterflies make
Moths
up the fifteenth order,
from
the minute
or
Lepidoptera, which gets its name
clothe
bodies
and
the
overlapping scales which
In
of
the adults
wings of the insects concerned.
certain families all the mouth-parts are
rudimentary,
food is taken ; but usually the first maxillae
and
no
are
elongated and grooved on their inner surfaces,so
in appositionthey form a tube, or proboscis,
that when
be sucked into the mouth.
through which liquidscan
The
other
mouth-parts are generallyvery small or
absent, except the palpi of the second maxillae,which
that in
have
wrell developed. We
are
already seen
is present at the
the lowest families of moths
a jugum
of each
base
fore-wing. Most other moths have a
splitsdown
the
and
the
MOTHS
frenulumat
81
wing, which hooks
under
the underkind of strap (the rttinaculum)
side
a
on
of the fore-wing. In the male
the frenulum
is
usually a singlecurved bristle,but in the female it
locking
commonly consists of three stiff hairs. This interthe
of each
base
moths,
in all
and
universal,however, for in
the co-ordination of
butterflies,
is not
arrangement
some
hind-
the two
side depends solelyupon
wings of the same
the underlappingof the fore-wingby the anterior part
of the hind-wing.
The
larvae of Lepidopterous insects are
always
caterpillars,
though
usuallywith five pairs of prolegs,
there are
remarkable
exceptions to this rule.
many
They generallyfeed on vegetablematter, but a few
kinds (e.g.,
those of the
clothes-moths
stances
") eat subof animal
origin,such as wool or feathers.
Among the lowliest of all moths the pupa is free,and,
like that of the caddis-fly,
equipped with functional
"
mandibles
;
but
from
the lower
pass
becomes
find that the pupa
as
we
we
higherfamilies,
and
obtected
the
to
more
ing
generalhardenand thickening
of the outer skin,and consequently
less and less capable of movement.
The
pupal stage
is usuallypassed in concealment, either in a subterranean
the exception
cell,or in a cocoon
; but, with
of some
skippers,"butterflies do not spin cocoons.
more
covered
i.e.,
"
by
a
"
What
is the
?
butterfly
difference
From
distinction
said that
the
can
that
have
and
moth
a
factory
standpoint no satisIt has already been
made.
no
frenulum, but the same
be
;
been
while
as
"
"
of the other
most
suggested such
holding the wings in repose, or
flies at night or by day
are
by
6
a
scientific
butterflies have
is true of certain moths
between
the
whether
no
means
manner
the
tests
of
insect
infallible.
INSECTS
BRITISH
82
So
far
found
as
that
British
the
concerned, it will be
species are
of butterflies
antennae
clubbed
are
at
tip,whereas those of moths, notwithstandingtheir
in a point.
of form, usuallyterminate
great diversity
shall do well to admit
Nevertheless, we
franklythat
no
sharp line separatingmoths from butterflies can be
the
drawn.
Lepidopterais representedin the British
than
Islands
species.
by considerablymore
2,000
These
fall into numerous
families,of which only the
here.
more
important can be mentioned
The familyMicropterygidce
includes the least specialized
moths, which are evidentlyrelated to the caddisflies. The
all small, and
species are
unlikely to
It is worthy
attract the notice of the casual student.
The
order
of note, however, that
in
of
the mandibles
genus
one
developed, and that throughout the
familythe pupa is free,with functional jaws, which it
The perfect
the cocoon.
to extricate itself from
uses
moths
flyin springtimeround the branches of trees,
while the larvae feed (according to their genus) either
the
adults
in wet
jnoss
are
or
in the soft tissues of leaves.
of
lowly
and
of the preceding
origin,
agree with the members
family in certain details of structure, notably in
possessinga jugum at the base of the fore-wing. The
The
pupa,
swift-moths1
well-known
however,
roots, and
growth
;
parts, take
has
often
but
no
no
mandibles.
take
the
two
adults
food, and
The
to
years
have
hence
also
are
larvae feed
attain
their full
rudimentary
are
on
mouth-
short-lived.
The
esting
family includes five British species,the most interbeing the ghost-swift.2The male, which has
in the evening above
shining white wings, hovers
1
Hepialidce.
*
Hepialus humuli.
MOTHS
83
herbage, and attracts the female by an odour given off
by dense tufts of long hairs on the tibiae of the hindwing-colour of the female is ochreous
legs. The
that
similarit
be little doubt
this disyellow,and there can
of the
whitest
males
sexes
is due
to
natural
selection
"
the
in each
generationbeing most likelyto
readilyseen
by the females.
mate, since they are most
This view is supported by the fact that in Shetland,
the summer
the male is
where
nights are very light,
often yellow like the female.
In members
of the familyZyganida we
find,for the
of the hind-wing,
at the base
first time, a frenulum
the proboscis is well developed. There
and
two
are
genera
"
viz.,the
burnets,1 and
the
foresters,2all
the
The
species flyingby day, preferablyin sunshine.
Before
typicallarva of the family is short and stout.
changing to the pupa, it spins a strong, elongate
of grass or some
other plant.
cocoon
on
a stem
In the family Psychidce the caterpillar
constructs
a
silken case
covered with fragments of stick or refuse.
is grub-likein form, and
The
adult female
wholly
but is visited
leaves her case,
helpless. She never
has well-developedwings,
therein by the male, which
and
flies with
considerable
strength and swiftness,
usuallyby day. We have only three British species.
The
another
clearwings3make
family of dayup
in the
larvae feed in wood,
or
flyingmoths, whose
of plants,the commonest
rootstocks
stems
or
being
in the
that of the currant-clearwing,which
burrows
and destroys the pith. The
bushes
twigs of currant
in most
in June, and is common
adult moth*
appears
gardens,where it frequentsflowers of various kinds.
1
3
Zyg"na.
2
SesiidoB.
4
Procris
Sesia
;
Ino
of
some
tipuliformis.
authors.
BRITISH
84
Members
of
INSECTS
this
from
family get their popular name
the fact that the wings are
in great measure
free from
scales,and hence transparent. Owing to this peculiarity,
and
to their coloration, several
of the species
resemble
stinginginsects of the order Hymenoptera.
For example, Trochilium apiforme,
whose
larvae feed in
the trunk and roots of the poplar,might pardonablybe
mistaken
at first sight for a largewasp,
hornet ;
or
a
mimetic
and
this
likeness
probably stands the
in good stead by warding off the attacks of birds
moth
"
"
and
other insectivorous
family Cossida
The
Its red-brown
moth.1
creatures.
is
representedby
larvae feed
the
big goat-
in the solid wood
of
livingtrees, and take several years to reach maturity.
which
be three inches
The full-growncaterpillar,
may
in length,pupates just inside the entrance
to its
or more
of chips. The
burrow, first forming a cocoon
pupa
and partlyout of the
its way
out of the cocoon,
works
of the moth.
Some
tree, prior to the emergence
the
authorities regard the wood-leopard-moth2 and
reed-moth3
as
Cossida,but others preferto treat them
but closely-allied,
family viz.,Zeuzeridce.
as a distinct,
The
family Tovtricidce comprises considerablymore
members.
British
than
Although they are all
300
indicates
small moths, their structure
affinitywith
the goat-moth and
clearwings. Most of the species
outline of
be
squared
recognized by the
may
of many
the fore-wing at the
tip. The caterpillars
"
"
"
4
species e.g., the beautiful green oak-moth
rolled-upleaves, while others bore into the
of the notorious codlin-moth5
plants. Those
in apples,where
they feed chieflyon the core
"
1
Cossus
4
ligniperda.2
Tortrix
viridana.
Zeuzera
cssculi.
5
3
"
feed
in
tissues of
burrow
and
pips.
Phragmatceciacastanece.
Carpocapsapomonella.
MOTHS
The
allied
known
85
family of small,
Tineida, includes
as
often
moths,
minute,
digenou
in-
of
hundreds
many
and
species,whose wings are usuallynarrow
pointed,fringedwith long hairs. The larvae generally
various
live in concealment, but
they have
very
habits.
Many, such as the bramble-leaf miner,1 make
and lower epidertortuous
the upper
tunnels between
mis
of leaves.
Some
spin leaves together. Not a few
feed on
stored goods of various
kinds, and are very
these
destructive, among
being the clothes-moths
of
boxes
our
Indeed,
wardrobes.
and
as
yellow clothes-moth, known
very good type of the familyas
We
now
The
moths."
the
to
come
first,or
two
common
is
Uselliella,
Tineola
a
the
a
whole.
of
families
"
be
Ptcnphoridetmay
plumesented
repre-
by the white plume,2 whose wings are divided
clefts
two
the chief nervures
by deep clefts between
in each
hind- wing. The
fore- wing, three
in each
The
leaves.
larva is hairy,and feeds on convolvulus
is suspended from
leaf by its tail,like the
a
pupa
butterflies ; but it is incompletely
chrysalidesof some
"
obtected, and
certain
freelymovable.
The
British member
of the
and
has each
little moth
the
than,
that
follow
wing
stands
its abdominal
of
segments
twenty-four plume3
second family the
"
six-cleft almost
apart from, and
to
is the
a
"
This
higher
level
agrees with those
is completely
its pupa
precedingfamilies,but
in
obtected, with
the
fact
that
little power
of movement.
Its larvae
feed among
the flower-buds
of honeysuckle.
The
family Pyralida includes about 150
species, which
1
sole
Qrneodida
the base.
at
are
arranged
are
Nepticulaaurella.
3
Orneodcs
2
in several
British
sub-families.
Pterophoruspentadactylus.
hexadactyla.
86
BRITISH
A
fairlygood type
moth,1
The
the
whose
larvae
grass-moths2 that
wax-moths3
that
the
flour-moth,4that
mills and
bakeries,are
but
the
so-called
remarkable
group,
INSECTS
is
familiar
the
feed
the
on
abound
magpiestinging nettle.
-
in meadows
infest the
is
small
such
other
in summer,
of bees, and
combs
a
nuisance
in
corn-
well-known
china-marks6
are
for their larvae
examples ;
perhaps the most
feed on
submerged
furnished
instances
are
water-plants,and in some
with gills.
The
hook-tips,with six indigenous species,make
The characteristic hooked
up the familyDvepanulidce.
while
shape of the fore- wing is an obvious distinction,
the larvae have
no
prolegs on the hindmost
segment,
which
is prolonged into a pointed process, raised up
when
the creature
is at rest.
family Lasiocampidais representedin Britain
by eleven species, including the eggar- and lackeyand the lappet.7 These
moths, as well as the drinker,6
have
no
frenulum, and the proboscis is obsolete,no
food being taken in the adult stage. The
antennae
are
feathered," in both sexes.
doubly pectinated,or
The caterpillars
the usual
are
stout, hairy,and have
number
of prolegs. When
full fed they spin dense
above
cocoons
ground.
The
family Lymantridcz* likewise includes eleven
British species,which
the foregoingin the
resemble
absence
is present, and
of a proboscis
; but a frenulum
the antennae
are
bipectinateonly in the males. These
larvae have
the so-called tussock-moths, whose
are
The
"
1
*
6
Botys urticata.
Ephestia kuhniella.
Odonestis potatoria.
Or
Liparida.
2
Crambina.
5
7
3
Galleriance.
Hydrocampina.
Gastropacha quercifolia.
BRITISH
88
the
hind-wings are
INSECTS
A
fairlygood
is the well-known
cabbage-moth,1
type of the Noctuida
whose
smooth-skinned
has ten prolegs,
larva, which
burrows
into the soil before changing to the pupa.
But the form of the larva and its habits varies a good
deal
in the
showily
coloured.
different sub-families.
For
instance, the
has
of the beautiful burnished-brass-moth2
caterpillar
to
a
semi-looping gait, its prolegs being reduced
three pairs; while when
full grown
of
it spins a cocoon
white
silk among
the leaves of its food-plant the
stinging-nettle.
The
family Notodontida,of which we have twentyfive species,is made
up of the puss- and kitten-moths,
the prominents,and
their allies. The
are
caterpillars
often curiously
shaped, without anal prolegs as in the
of the puss-moth,3whose
is portrayed
case
life-history
of the species e.g., the buffPlate II. ; but some
on
tip4 have larvae of ordinaryform, with the usual ten
the buff-tipcaterpillar
prolegs. Moreover, whereas
merely buries itself in the soil before changing to the
The cocoons
kinds spin elaborate cocoons.
pupa, some
relatives are
of the puss-moth and
its nearest
hard,
"
"
"
"
"
"
wood-like
structures
attached
to
the bark
of trees.
already observed in certain of the Noctuid
of the normal
larvae a tendency to dispense with some
prolegs. In the family Geometridcz (thecarpets, pugs,
all the larvae,of which
and their kindred) almost
we
have
about
species,have got rid of all but two
270
pairsof prolegs these being at the hinder end of the
moves
by first
body. Consequently, the creature
graspinga twig or leaf with its six thoracic legs,and
until they nearly
then
bringing its prolegs forward
have
We
"
1
3
Mamestra
Cerura
brassica.
vinula.
2
Plusia
*
Phalera
chrysitis.
bucephala.
MOTHS
touch
thrown
into
taken.
middle
thorax, the
the
strong
a
part of
or
curve
larvae
these
Hence,
89
loop
as
each
known
are
body being
the
"
step
"
is
popularly as
stickalso called
are
"loopers." Many of them
the
at rest, they have
because, when
caterpillars,"
habit of holding on to the food-plantby their prolegs,
stiff and
out
and
straight,so
stretchingthemselves
this means
shoot or twig. But
that they resemble
a
of protection,
though very generalin the family,is not
ous
universal,a well-known
exception being the conspicuto
of the magpie-moth,1 which is known
caterpillar
"
insectivorous
be distasteful to most
regarded as an instance
In general terms, the
be
thus
described
pattern
on
the
fore- and
Geometers
be
may
having the same
hind-wings the wings being
slender-bodied
as
creatures, and may
ation."
of " warning color-
moths,
"
The
spread out when the insect is at rest.
method
of pupation varies greatlyin different species,
either spinsa cocoon
but usuallythe full-fed caterpillar
else buries in
the leaves of the food-plant,
or
among
commonly
the
soil.
family2is representedin Britain by
garded
seventeen
can
only be respecies,several of which
the
Continent.
chance
as
migrants from
is the privet-hawk.3 It is a
Probably the commonest
of the species e.g., the
fairly
good type, althoughsome
poplar-hawk4 have broader wings, and are less rapid
in flight.The
is
build of the humming-bird hawk5
while its two
also different,
clear-winged relatives,the
The
hawk-moth
"
"
"bee-hawks," have
that
is apt to
1
3
5
Abraxas
a
confuse
mimetic
the
grossulariata.
Sphinx ligustri.
Macroglossastellatarum.
likeness to
tyro.
2
4
The
humble-bees
hairless
cater-
Sphingid.ce.
Smerinthus populi.
BRITISH
90
INSECTS
of hawk-moths
have ten prolegs,
and (inall the
pillars
British species)
a spine,
or
tail,"on the last segment.
The full-fed caterpillar
burrows
into the soil,
and by
working itselfround and round, forms a cell,wherein
it changes to the pupa.
Two
other British moths
call for notice : First,the
of
emperor,1 which is the sole British representative
ts family,
the Satiwniidce ; second, the Kentish glory,2
which
constitutes a family in itself,
since it stands
from all other known
remote
Lepidoptera. Superficially,
these two speciesdo not seem
very dissimilar.
In both the proboscisis rudimentary,
and the frenulum
"
absent
;
but
the
in the
number
and
of the
arrangement
ner-
wings characters upon which systematic
differ greatly,
rightlylay great stress
entomologists
and
indicate two
perfectlydistinct lines of descent.
The handsome
of the emperor-moth is not
caterpillar
uncommon
during July and August upon heath, birch,
and other plants. When
full grown,
it spinsa dense,
in
from which the imago emerges
pear-shapedcocoon,
May of the followingyear. The Kentish glory,though
widely distributed in Britain as far north as the
Caledonian
Canal, occurs
only in certain favoured
localities. Its caterpillars,
which
feed on
semble
birch, rethose
of the hawk-moth
family; while the
has
the habit (very unusual
highlypupa
among
specialized
moths) of working its way completelyout
of the
of its cocoon
some
days priorto the emergence
the emperor
Both
and the Kentish
moth.
gloryare
phism
sex-dimoras
examples of the phenomenon known
ferent
is very difthe coloration of the male
i.e.,
vures
"
"
"
"
"
from
remaining families
The
41
that of the female.
butterflies."
1
Saturnia
In all the
pavonia.
Lepidoptera comprise the
speciesthe proboscisis de-
of
2
Endromis
versicolora.
BUTTERFLIES
91
the tip to
dilated towards
are
veloped,the antennae
form a gradual or abrupt club, while the hind-wing
is without
the exception of the
frenulum.
With
a
skippers,"which stand somewhat
apart from the
other families,
butterflies form a compact and isolated
We
must
not infer,
however, that this group is
group.
equal in systematic importance to the whole of the
moths.
should regard it as an
On the contrary, we
"
offshoot from
nearlyrelated
logical
genea-
Lepidoptera. Butterflies are
than
these
the higher moths
of
tree
of the
branches
of the main
one
to
more
to
are
the lower.
So many
that
a
books
brief outline of the
The
and
legsare
with
few
cocoons
thick-set insects that
wings spread out.
fullydeveloped,and
The
larvae
hairs.
When
among
leaves, except
walking.
served
by
characterize
which
peculiarities
are
with their
all the six
amply
able,
avail-
are
families.
skippersl
rest
butterflies
will be
present purpose
our
the several
British
about
somewhat
are
flyrapidly,
both
In
sexes
serviceable
for
spindle-shaped,
they spin slight
full grown,
in
the
of the
case
is attached
by the
chequered skipper,2whose
pupa
tail,and supported by a belt of silk.
and coppers,3
males
The
of all blues,hairstreaks,
less shortened,
have the tarsi of the fore-legs
more
or
or
with
one
the
the neuration
sexes
The
clothed
fixed
even
1
"
"
larvae
are
very
like wood-lice
somewhat
with
by
the
hairs
short
tail and
buried
claws
from
specialization
of greater
or
absent ; while in both
tion
of the wings differs in the direc-
both
or
in the
Hesperides.
2
that
of the
characteristic in
The
in appearance.
or
bristles,and
belted,but
may
skippers.
form, being
be
is
pupa
generally
unattached,
ground.
Cyclop"despalamon.
3
is
Lyccenida.
BRITISH
92
The
littleDuke
INSECTS
l is the
only
Burgundy fritillary
British representative
of a family2 whose
headquarters
in tropicalAmerica.
The
of the male
are
fore-legs
much
reduced
that they are
useless for walking.
are
so
The larva resembles
but has
those of the last family,
tufts of short,stiffhairs on its back.
3
The
swallow-tail butterfly
stands
apart from the
other species,
being one of the great familyPapilionidtz
members
abound
in the tropics. The
six legs
whose
are
fullydeveloped in both sexes, and the neuration of
the wings differs conspicuouslyfrom that of all other
butterflies. The larva is cylindrical,
devoid of hairs,
behind
and
has
the
head
curious two-pronged
a
This is usuallyretracted and invisible ; but
process.
it can
be shot
out
that is believed
and
of
other
to
and
made
to
emit
a
strong odour
from
protect the caterpillar
enemies.
mons
ichneu-
The
has two
pupa, which
("nose-horns "),is fixed
projectingfrontal tubercles
by the tail to a pad of silk,and kept upright by a
silken girdle. This fixingof the pupa's tail,by the
which
is
(thecremaster)
way, is effected by a projection
beset with microscopic hooks that become
entangled
the silk fibres.
with
The
white
"
brimstone,
butterflies,"
includingthe
and
make
clouded-yellows,
up
orange-tip,
the family
in having
They agree with the swallow-tail
all six legs fullydeveloped in both sexes
;
wing-neuration is different. Moreover, the
Pieridce.
clothed
with
close,short
the
the
is
larva
pupa
has
"nose-horn."
only one
Members
our
of the
prises
family Nymphalida, which comtortoiseshells,
meadow-browns,
fritillaries,
etc.,differ from
are
fore-legs
1
hairs, while
but
Nemeobius
all other
much
lucina.
butterflies in the fact that the
reduced,
2
and
Lemoniidez.
useless for
3
walking,
Papiliomachaon.
BUTTERFLIES
in both
93
The
in some
are
caterpillars
genera
armed
with
formidable
spines,in others they are
smooth-skinned
has always two
nose; but the pupa
downwards
horns," and usually hangs head
by its
from a silk pad, without any girdling
thread.
cremaster
The
followingsub-families should be noted : The
tortoiseshells,
Nymphalina, including the fritillaries,
and the pupa is
admirals, etc., have spiny caterpillars,
often resplendentwith metal-like patches,thus meriting
the name
chrysalis. The famous purple-emperor*
is the only British representativeof the sub-family
in which
and slug-like,
the larva is smooth
Apaturince,
In the case
with two long tentacles on the head.
of
their allies,2the larvae are
and
the meadow-browns
clothed with short hairs,and
towards
taper somewhat
the extremities.
is usuallysuspended by
The
pupa
sexes.
"
the tail ; but in
white3
one
or
it is hidden
"
two
instances
in moss,
among
e.g., the marbled-
"
roots, or justbelow
the soil.
The
of British butterflies is
number
usuallygiven as
extinct species the
sixty-eight
; but this includes one
4 and
four that are
famous
sional
large-copper,
merely occaimmigrants viz.,the Bath-white,6the Queenthe long-tailed
of-Spainfritillary,6
blue,7and an insect
"
"
that is known
in its American
home
as
the
"monarch,"
milkweed
is a great
butterfly."8The last named
and since 1870 or thereabouts
has extended
traveller,
its range from the new
to the old world
by way of the
Pacific Islands, and
bids
fair to become
wellnigh
of a distinct Nymphacosmopolitan. It is a member
line sub-family viz.,Danaina.
or
"
"
1
3
5
7
8
2
Sub-family Satyrincs.
Apatura iris.
*
Chrysophanusdispar.
Melanargiagalathea.
6 A
Pieris daplidice.
rgynnislathonia.
bcetica.
Polyommatus (Lycana)
A nosia erippus
; also called A nosia plexippus.
CHAPTER
VIII
all
NEARLY flies,"
"
as
applied
These
differ
wings
reduced
wings
When
only.
for
serve
The
that
instruments,
of
tongue"
labium)
; but
through
sheath
loops
extreme
tip
actual
to
the
back
of
the
six
the
skin
under
94
which
the
as
within
a
maxillae,
the
needles
while
head.
insect's
remains
the
and
labrum,
victim,
surrounds
to
reason,
normally
however,
through
stabbing
good
bites,"
the
for
mosquito,
second
the
sheath,
skin, and
sucking-tube,
of
sucking
insect, such
lie
"
pound
com-
modified
for
or
maxillae,
needles
not
conspicuous.
greatly
with
first
gnat
with
needle-like
modified
a
and
or
mandibulate
(the
when
driven
pressed
the
sheath
grooved
six
believed,
are
typical
a
All
cockroach.
than
mandibles,
the
represent
less
no
These
flight.
sucking,
gnat,
(p. 7),
The
are
grey
hind-
halteres
or
nervures.
large
and
piercing
flies,"
the
transparent,
mouth-parts
common
has
example,
"
the
present,
to
generally
are
Diptera.
or
having
for
used
longitudinal
seven
in
knobs,
usually
are
fittingly
most
two-winged
insects
being
popularly
order,
"
or
stalked
alone
eyes
as
tiny
is
sixteenth
all other
to
known
are
name
flies,"
true
from
than
more
so
"
fore-wings
functional
the
of the
the
are
which
the
but
members
to
insects
winged
FLEAS
AND
FLIES
TWO-WINGED
are
the
The
closely
needles.
blood
or
is
The
drawn
95
In
wound.
enlarge the
and
represent
being chieflyused
maxillae
and
which
needles
conjunction,the
in
mandibles
the
FLEAS
mouth, probablyconsists of the labrum
into the
tongue
AND
FLIES
TWO-WINGED
of
Hall
Central
the
to
the
enlarged
(Natural History) some
models of a gnat'shead and mouth-parts are exhibited.
show
These
clearlythe positionsof the several organs,
in which
Students who
and the manner
they work.
Museum
British
should
able to visit the Museum
are
not
fail to examine
carefully.
Among those Diptera that are able only
have
all the mouth-parts except the labium
these models
in
ends
which
it lies in
use
jointed,it can
The
pad is
tributaries
with
the
labium
the
obsolete ; but
is
cavity beneath
a
by
traversed
main
two
It
mouth.
hard
dissolve
or
which
tubes
like
a
house-flyis able
be
Diptera may
the
accordance
with
substances
to eat
lump
divided
as
communicate
kind
of
small
the
act
sponge,
solid
fly is
saliva
in
bodies,
able
order
that would
to
to
wise
other-
that
sugar.
into
character
the
feeding.
It is in this way
for food.
unsuitable
be
but, being
ducts, that
or
even
readilyabsorbing liquids,
such as pollen grains. Moreover,
of the pad with
flood the ducts
soften
;
insect is
the
numerous
acts
organ,
in
not
When
head
the
when
become
wonderful
very
bilobed, fleshypad.
a
be extended
to
a
suck,
to
two
of the
sub-orders
larva,and
in
the
pupal skin splitsto allow for the
All Dipterous larvse are
of the
imago.
escape
of thoracic
destitute
order
legs; but in the first sub!
but distinct head, while
there
is a
small
down
the pupal skin splitslongitudinally
the back.
flies of this sub-order are arranged in numerous
The
manner
in which
the
1
Orthorrapha.
96
BRITISH
INSECTS
I
families,which
first group1
the
of at
fall naturally
into two
antennae
least
In the
groups.
and
thread-like,
slender
are
joints,usually of many
This group comprises the midges, gnats, cranemore.
and
their allies. The
families
most
flies,
interesting
the following:
are
The
gall-midges2are tiny, gnat-likeflies,whose
has reference
fact that many
of
to the
family name
the species,
as
larvae,affect the tissues of plants in
such
that abnormal
a way
growths or gallsare produced.
For
instance, the midge called Cecidomyia
saliciperda
laysher eggs in rows on the bark of willow
stems, and the minute
grubs, on hatching, burrow
inwards.
i.e.,the
They so irritate the cambium
that eventually
activelygrowing tissues of the stem
a spindle-shaped
swellingis produced ; and in the end
in shreds.
the bark ruptures and hangs down
When
several inches in circumference
is attacked
a stem
by
numerous
midges, a very large gall-structuremay
in the photograph
result,such as the specimen shown
reproduced on Plate XL, which measures
nearly a
foot in length. The tiny punctures scattered over
the
surface bear testimonyto the vast swarms
of midges
that must
have issued from this great gall.Many other
of them
curiouslyshaped
midge-caused galls,some
and prettily
coloured, may be found on different kinds
of plants; but membership of this familyby no means
necessarilyimpliesthe gall-makinghabit. The larvae
of many
HessianCecidomyids e.g., the notorious
fly3 do great harm to plantsby secretingthemselves
in the tissues and
sucking the sap, the process being
unaccompanied by any abnormal
growth on the part
of the vegetablecells. The
larvae of other species
composed
seven
"
"
"
"
1
Nematocera.
a
Cecidomyidce
.
3
Cecidomyiadestructor.
FLIES
TWO-WINGED
on
and
mites.
matter, and
animal
dead
feed
FLEAS
AND
few prey
a
97
aphides
on
flies,
family Bibionida includes stoutly-built
The
with relatively
short antennae.
eyes are
tionally
excepThe
sexes
large,especiallyin the males.
differ remarkably in colour,the females being usually
The
larvae feed
red or yellow,the males deep black.
in decaying
or
the roots of grass and other plants,
on
In spring or
the
early summer
vegetablematter.
in enormous
numbers
perfectflies may often be seen
and open places.
the herbage in meadows
among
small
black
so-called sand-midges1 are
The
or
of which there are about a dozen
British
greyishflies,
remarkable
for their bloodsucking
species. They are chiefly
which
habits,and the annoyance
they cause
The
and
beast.
to
man
early stages of the lifehistoryare passed in running water, where the larvae
feed on minute vegetableorganisms,such as algaeor
The
diatoms.
The
true
certain
but
inveterate
bottom
the
at
and
species,known
Some
the
of
as
"
stagnant
our
or
is
situations.
are
The
varied.
very
their red
mud
They
colour
are
is due
of
haemoglobin the
that gives colour to
"
blood.
own
family
The
1
7
twilight.
plished
usuallyaccom-
summer
dirtywater.
in their bodies
presence
the
among
blood-worms," live in
substance
oxygen-attracting
same
chief
are
their habits
interestingbecause
especially
to
Cemtopogon are
genus
our
larvae
part harmless,
most
gardens in the
family,also,metamorphosis
in damp
in the water, or
of the
form
the
blood-suckers, and
pests that haunt
In this
for the
midges2 are
species of
Culicidcz
Simulida.
comprises
the
2
gnats
or
Chironomidce.
mos-
BRITISH
98
INSECTS
quitoes,the two popular names
notwithstandingthe current
"
"
is
of the
genus
in
other
are,
the
bite
"
of
insects
these
serious consequences
The
common
it
where
world
spread
a
is attended
fever ; but
islands,
our
by
no
more
than
tion.
temporary local inflamma-
grey
gnat1
blood-sucker,but is not,
in the
than
quitoes)
spotted-winged
gnats (ormosfound
in
are
Anopheleswhich
countries,responsible for the
malarial
parasitethat causes
has disappeared from
disease
this
"
insect
the
spread of
since
synonymous,
"
that a
quito
mos-
belief
formidable
more
of the
Some
gnat."
Britain
much
a
being
of
so
is another
far
disease
All
occurs.
is
as
in
some
trouble-
known,
cerned
con-
part of the
any
told, there
about
are
twenty-two species of British gnats, including some
that have
not
been
observed
aquatic,and feed on
animal and vegetable. Those
the familiar
wrigglers"that
are
all
"
butts and
with
a
cisterns in the
with
"
bite."
minute
are
so
near
tracheal
the
genus
larvae
Culex
are
in water-
common
Each
the
The
organisms,both
of the
summer.
respiratorytube
communicates
to
is furnished
tail-end,and
system.
this
When
taking in air the Culex larva suspends itself at an
angle from the surface- film, whereas the differently
shaped larva of Anopheles lies perfectlyhorizontal.
The pupae float at the surface,and breathe through a
pair of trumpet-liketubes on the thorax.
It should be noted that (with one
two
or
possible
the blood-suckinghabit among
flies of the
exceptions)
sub-order Orthorrapha is confined to the female sex.
The
males, if they feed at all, subsist on vegetable
juices as, indeed, the females are well able to do if
"
their favourite food is not
obtainable.
Culex
pipiens.
XI.
"
I "
I
MARBLE
GALL-WASP
(Cynics kollari)
WILLOW
STEM
GALLED
(Cecidomyia)
BY
MIDGE
NEST
OF
SOLITARY
(Eumenes)
WASP
100
BRITISH
serious pests, on
account
their victims.
seen,
and
The
of the
males,
on
caused
annoyance
the contrary, are
The
great ox
quite harmless.
the largest
British Diptera.
are
ranks
among
of Tabanida
INSECTS
found
are
in
water,
earth,
to
rarely
gad-fly1
The
larvae
decaying
or
molluscs, beetlewood, where
they feed on worms,
grubs, etc.
The alert,hairyrobber-flies2 have
the
been termed
of the insect world, since they prey remorselessly
savages
its lesser denizens, and
are
extremely
upon
A single individual
voracious.
to
has been observed
kill eightmoths
in twenty minutes.
ber
Indeed, a memof this family is rarely seen
other
without
some
insect in its grasp.
native speciesare unMost of our
attractive
some,
is decidedlyhand; but A siliuswabvoniformis
and
has a generalizedresemblance
to a hornet,
other
Like
Or
a
Asilids, it does not
large wasp.
its
hesitate to attack stinging insects ; but whether
likeness to this class of prey enables it (as has been
suggested)to approach its victims without arousing
their suspicion,is open
to
question. Probably the
serving to exempt the
mimicry is reallyprotective,
robber itself from the attacks
of larger insectivorous
"
"
creatures.
The
larvae of robber-flies
are
found
ing
burrow-
in
damp earth. So far as is known, they feed
other insects,
on
beetle-grubs.
especially
The
familiar bee-fly3
is typicalof the familyBombyliidce.Being thick-set and hairy,it might easilybe
mistaken
for
a
small
humble-bee
; but
its
manner
of
is very characteristic and rapid,and it rests with
flight
its wings stretched
Its moutheither side.
out
on
form
a
long, stiff proboscis,are of the
parts, which
piercingtype, but they are used onlyfor extractingthe
1
Tabanus
bovinus.
2
Asilidtz.
3
Bombilius
major.
TWO-WINGED
FLIES
juices from flowers.
was
long unknown,
It has
The
and
of
life-history
the
been
FLEAS
AND
101
this insect
vestigat
details still call for in-
ascertained, however,
that
jerked by the parent fly,when
hovering,
bee's nest,
of a solitary
againsta bank in the vicinity
the
and that the Bombilius larvae feed as parasites
on
bee-grubs.
The second sub-order1 of the Diptera comprises an
of highly specializedflies,whose
number
enormous
metamorphosis is very great, the larva being usuallya
maggot with no definite head-capsule. In the extreme
type the maggot has a broad, bluntish tail-end,and
tapers almost to a point at its anterior extremity,
the mouth-orifice
is situated.
where
Here, also, we
find a pairof strong hooks, moved
by powerfulmuscles,
the juices
that serve
to tear up the food substance, on
the eggs
of
are
which
the
larva
subsists.
When
one
of
these
its skin,instead of being cast aside,
maggots is full-fed,
and
contracts
hardens
to
form
an
ovate
puparium
"
a
mately
within which the pupa lies. Ulticase
protective
the perfect fly pushes open
circular lid at
a
of the
out.
the
head-end
puparium, and
creeps
spicuous,
inconThroughout this sub-order the species have
the third
three-jointedantennae, of which
and bears a long,bristle-like
jointis by far the largest,
In many
there is a conspicuous lobe,
genera
process.
called the squama, at the base of each wing. The most
important families are the following:
kind of
The
hover-flies and
Diptera
the
Some
are
their allies2 differ from
in their
all other
but in other respects
wing-neuration,
themselves.
speciesvary greatlyamong
while many
hairy,others smooth and shining,
or
spottedwith yellow or orange, and are
numerous
are
banded
1
Cyclorrhapha.
2
Syrphid".
BRITISH
102
INSECTS
The
chief mouth-part
and bees.
like wasps
strikingly
is also a series of
there
is the fleshylabium, but
if any, the
what
To
use,
slender, pointed lancets.
latter are
put is not known, seeing that the food of
these insects consists chieflyof pollen.
Honey is
also doubtless taken by some
species(writesDr. Sharp),
but the lancet-like organs
equally ill-adapted
appear
of the larva and the
form
for dealingwith it." The
in this
diverse
of the
nature
are
life-history
very
family. The hover-flies that frequentour gardens lay
their eggs
on
plants, and their maggots do good
service to mankind
by preying on aphides, whose
which
The
common
juices they suck.
drone-fly,1
"
in appearance,
is
hive-bee
overgrown
the " ratof species whose
larvae are
of a group
one
tailed maggots
that
feed in liquid filth or
dirty
resembles
an
"
puddles.
The
remarkable
"
tail"
system ; and
withdrawal, the larva
contains
an
tension
ex-
it is
capable of
is able always to
extension
or
keep the tip above water, thus securing a constant
supply of air. In another genus,2 the maggots live in
the nests
where
of bees and
once
they were
wasps,
believed to prey upon
known
the grubs, but are
now
to act
Other
as
Syrphid larvae feed in
scavengers.
fungi or decaying vegetable matter
; while those of the
humble-bee-like
species,
narcissus-fly3a particularly
burrow
into livingbulbs, and
very variable in colour
much
cause
mischief, both in this country and in
of the tracheal
as
"
"
Holland.
The
in their larval state, rank
bot-flies,4
among
the
parasites,
feedingas they do in
the nasal passages, under the skin,or in the alimentary
most
revoltingof
1
3
all
Eristalis tenax.
2
Volucella.
Merodon
4
(Estridce
equestris.
canal
of
animals
vertebrate
FLEAS
AND
FLIES
TWO-WINGED
sheep,
"
oxen,
103
horses,
or
according to the species in question. The female
for example, drops her eggs
(or
sheep-nostril-fly,1
perhaps newly-hatched larvae)into the nostrils of a
and development take place in the
sheep. Growth
cavities of the head to which
the nostrils give access
;
and
bots," as the larvae are
ultimatelythe mature
called,fall to the ground, where
they pupate beneath
The
bots of warble-flies2 live just
clods.
stones
or
"
skin of oxen,
loss to stock-owners
on
under
the
and
are
the
cause
of the
account
of serious
damage
done
to
Strangely enough, the adult flies of this
without
mouth-parts, and take
family are practically
food of any
kind.
no
except
They are rarely seen
when
flyingaround the animals that they victimize.
of the
The enormous
familyMuscidce includes most
kind
speciesthat commonly visit the habitations of manthe
blue- and
house-flies,flesh-flies,
greenhides.
the
"
bottles,not
to
mention
less familiar
many
All
kinds.
and
decaying animal
vegetable substances, each species having its own
and
habits. One flyknown
as
Stomoxys
predilection
calcitrans calls for specialmention, because it is nearly
these
feed,
as
to
the
related
continent, and,
maggots,
tsetse-flies of
dreaded
like
on
has
them,
(very exceptional endowments
which
with
is often
like,and
;
3
and
there is a
rain."
it is able
as
been
1
confused
popular belief
Of
suck
it rarelyenters
course,
suctorial labium,
has
to
convicted
(Estrus ovis.
the
never
of
2
that
African
piercingmouth-parts
the Muscidce),
among
blood.
with, the
houses
"
the
It is very
common
much
fly
house-
except before rain,
flies begin to bite before
real
house-fly,
having only a
bites at all. Nevertheless,it
contaminatingour food with the
Hypoderma.
3
Musca
domestica.
BRITISH
104
INSECTS
for its
diseases,and every possiblemeans
suppression should be adopted. Both Stomoxys and
the true house-fly
in stable refuse.
The
breed chiefly
tinct
bristly
grey flesh-fliesand their allies make
up a disof the
sub-family viz., Savcophagince. Most
in
species are viviparous i.e.,the eggs are hatched
the parent's body, and
sequentl
the young
maggots are subAnother
food.
suitable
dropped upon
flieswith very bristly
sub-familyl comprises numerous
into
bodies.
They lay their eggs on caterpillars,
These
whose
tissues the maggots burrow.
parasites
often cause
The
disappointment to the collector.
afflicted caterpillars
usuallypreserve sufficient vitality
to pupate ; but the pupae
eventuallydisclose Tachinid
germs
of
"
"
flies instead of the looked-for
moths.
The
small
familyAnthomyiidczcomprises numerous
species,many of which look like tinyhouse-flies. In
instances the maggots
feed on
some
decaying matter
of various
into living
kinds ; in others
they burrow
One
havoc.
plants,and work considerable
species
called Hylemia antiqua is the
whose
onion-fly,"
do
much
sometimes
so
damage to onion
maggots
"
crops.
A
few
highly specializedflies of strange habits
make
sucking
They are all bloodup the familyHippoboscida.
and
the bodies of mamlive upon
mals,
parasites,
The
are
rarely, birds.
maggots
or, more
and
produced viviparously,
fully developed, so that
they pupate shortlyafter leaving the parent's body.
The best known
example of this familyis the wingless
ked," 2 often erroneouslycalled the "sheep-tick."
Other speciesare winged, and one
of these, the New
attracted
has on
occasion
than
more
one
Forest-fly,3
"
1
TachinincB.
2
Melophagus ovinus.
3
Hippobosca equina.
TWO-WINGED
notice
popular
by
The
of
which
known,
are
order,
seventeenth
fleas,
the
which
105
stampede
to
during
lancet-like
the
are
unpaired
modified
of
"
in
further
"
by
may
be
only
Moreover,
larvae
worm-like
among
which
small
passed.
dust
and
it contains.
silken
labial
the
entire
of
flattening
"
as
have
biting
When
cocoon,
and
full-grown,
wherein
the
wings,
They
parasites,"
since
their
to
the
are
bodies.
blood.
on
tubular
of
victims.
The
white,
live
They
mouth-parts.
feed
three
Fleas
absence
their
suck
a
the
as
a
palpi.
attached
fleas
refuse,
in
intermittent
adult
others
as
sucking-tube.
a
encased
are
and
regard
These
form
to
as
permanently
not
edges,
lip,
upper
two
by
described
are
so
the
by
lateral
the
or
they
characterized
and
serrated
(hypopharynx).
use,
formed
rostrum,
labrum
in
them
mouth-parts
authorities
some
interlock,
not
they
the
tongue
mouth-parts
When
which
from
piercing
with
mandibles,
organ
prolongation
The
talpa,
probably
are
differ
they
respects.
species
HystrichopsyUa
insects
but
comprises
British
forty
These
Diptera,
important
many
of
being
largest
moles.
the
to
Siphonaptera,
or
upwards
the
infests
allied
a
horses
causing
FLEAS
AND
manoeuvres.
army
an
FLIES
organic
each
pupal
matter
larva
spins
stage
is
CHAPTER
ANTS,
BEES,
order
of
?
The
question
facts
that
the
apparent,
for
the
manifestly
of their
perfection, the
supreme
faculties
insects
which
must
now
in
hooks
which
the
on
cannot
lens,
minute
but
of
the
hind
be
their
a
very
of
which
of
the
wasps.
the
have
of each
hooks
be
a
and
numerous.
engage
aid of
four
large,
fore-wing.
the
may
106
wings
row
of
presence
Diptera
Hymenoptera,
very
never
hind-wing,
without
physical
the
insects
species, the
margin
seen
order
never
are
flight by
during
margin
are
nervures
few
a
united
front
fold
the
the
Hymenopterous
wings,
which
are
of
seems
of
of
ternal
ex-
attention.
our
engage
found
proto
ants, bees, and
to
in
such
refinement
highest
turn
included
standard
are
details
The
evince
families
the
must
are
membranous
for
we
majority
Except
but
;
These
advanced
more
insects
improvement
this
by
Judged
is well
adjustment
further
in
ment
develop-
of insect
others.
delicate
such
of
some
metamorphosis
that
hardly possible.
lines
Yet
than
evolutionary
superfluous,
type
it leads.
and
conditions,
of
seem
each
that
highest ""i.e.,
"
different
specialized
more
KINDRED
point
may
many
life which
structure
mental
in
and
modification,
of
is the
advanced
are
The
insects
most
of
stand
THEIR
the
progress
fitted
AND
WASPS,
WHICH
view
IX
side
on
the
with
a
These
fairlypowerful
demonstrated
by
ANTS,
BEES, WASPS,
KINDRED
THEIR
AND
107
wings of a newly dead bee, when
in unison.
the fore- and hind- wing will be seen
to move
A less obvious character
is the
of the Hymenoptera
partialor entire fusion of the first abdominal
segment
with the thorax
the
a
waist/' which is so marked
feature in many
families,
coming not between the thorax
and the abdomen, but behind the first abdominal
ment.
segMandibles
are
always present in the capacity
of nippingorgans ; but they are generally
employed as
tools, and have comparatively little to do with the
direct service of the mouth.
The maxillae vary greatly
in the different families.
Among the saw-flies they are
drawing forward
the
"
"
not
very
unlike those
cockroaches
of beetles and
;
but
in the
higher families they are adapted for lickingor
sucking. In the case of a hive-bee or a humble-bee,
for example, the parts are
greatly modified and of
in close contact,they act
considerable
length. When
is often
which
suctorial apparatus, or proboscis,
as
a
spoken of as the insect's "tongue." But the real
tongue (hypopharynx)is only a part of the compound
organ, in which it occupies a central position.
Hymenoptera undergo a complete metamorphosis,
but not
the pupa
being of the free type. It is usually,
by the fullalways,enclosed in a silken cocoon
spun
larva.
grown
marked
order
is divided
sub-orders, of which
saw-flies and
are
The
sometimes
is
more
wood-wasps,
called.
or
In
or
the
into
first1 includes
as
horn-tails,
all these
less continuous
well-
two
the
insects
with
the
the
latter
the
domen
ab-
thorax,
The
waist."
being no marked constriction or
ovipositorof the female is adapted for cutting or
all
larvae are
for stinging. The
boring, but never
the
live openly upon
which
plant-feeders.Those
"
there
1
Symphyta.
BRITISH
108
leaves
resemble
of moths,
caterpillars
pairs of prolegs sometimes
the
five
than
more
INSECTS
eight pairs; but those which
wood
are
white,fleshygrubs,with
three
are
The
many
in stems
burrow
There
heads.
hard
or
families in the sub-order.
called
saw-flies,so
stem
feed in the stems
of
Ccpkida. They
the
are
free and
mobile
of the
a
"
their larvae
because
plants,make
little family
the
up
specializedof
and
is elongate,
least
The pronotum
Hymenoptera.
of being intimately
connected
any
as
"
as
have
but
with
the
succeeding families.
The
instead
is
mesonotum,
is not
which
character
all the
found
in
saw-fly1is
corn
England. The female
inserts an egg a littlebelow the first jointof a young
corn-plant,and the grub eats its way upwards, often
traces
full-fed,it reboring through all the joints. When
close to the
its course,
and
spins its cocoon
ting
cutthe plant by partially
roots, first,
however, felling
through the straw at the base.
The
family Sivicidce is representedby two British
species viz., the giant wood-wasp,2 and the steelblue wood-wasp.3 The
former is not unlike a hornet
in its coloration,
The
but is quite harmless.
long,
the extremity of the female's
horn-like process
at
of
is not a sting,
abdomen
but an ovipositor,
by means
not
in the South
uncommon
of
"
which
she
bores
and
of trees
solid wood
holes in the
the wood,
The
inserts her eggs.
white grubs feed on
It is said that they
in which
they make long tunnels.
become
may
full-fed in
usuallythe life-history
appears
and
wasps
in
a
1
instances
Cephas pygm"us.
2
to
be much
recorded
of
long after
its
are
issuingfrom timber
building. Coniferous
eight weeks
or
seven
trees
Sirex
are
gigas.
more
adult
;
but
tracted,
pro-
wood-
incorporation
usuallyattacked,
3
S.juvencus.
BEES, WASPS,
ANTS,
AND
THEIR
KINDRED
109
largepine forests of Germany and Northern
Europe these insects have proved serious pests.
the name
The insects to which
saw-fly is most
commonly applied belong to the family Tenthrcdinida,
have numerous
of which we
indigenous species. One
whose
of the largestis Trichiosoma
tibialis,
caterpillar
feeds on hawthorn, and ultimatelyspinsa hard, brown
The perfectinsect appears
in early
a twig.
cocoon
on
spring,and is not unlike a largebee,but may readilybe
Another
by its long,clubbed antennae.
distinguished
member
of this family is the gooseberry saw-fly,1
In
which, as a larva, ravages our gooseberry bushes.
instances
the larvae of saw-flies feed in galls.
some
For instance, the crimson horse-bean
gallsthat are often
in the
and
"
"
so
numerous
by
a
In
speciesknown
the
sub-order2
waist."
The
insertingthe
eggs,
form
for
second
Nematus
as
is constricted
abdomen
a
"
of the crack willow
the leaves
on
of
behind
caused
are
gallicola.
the Hymenoptera
the
first segment
to
ovipositormay be merely a tool
but in the higher families it is
the
sting,the eggs then passing,
but through an
not through the organ
itself,
aperture
The
larva is always a legless
at its base.
grub, whose
the instinctive preparationsof
welfare depends upon
the parent, or
(where social species are concerned)
of the
workers
the dailyministrations of the
upon
This
sub-order
comprises by far the
community.
of the Hymenoptera.
larger number
Many families
them
are
being the following:
recognized,among
The
gall-wasps3are so called because many of the
in the production of galls,in
species are concerned
which
the
found
on
galls are
grubs feed. These
several kinds of plants,but most
commonly on the oak.
often modified
to
act
as
a
"
"
1
Nematus
ribesii.
2
Apocrita.
3
Cynipida.
BRITISH
110
INSECTS
oak-apple,"which originexamples are the
ates
the various "cherry,"
in a bud, and
spangle,"
button
and
gallsthat are attached to the leaves. In
a
generalway it may be said that each species of
is perfectly
is bred from a gallwhich
distinct
gallwasp
from all the other kinds, but
in form and appearance
of certain speciesinvolve a remarkable
the life-cycles
alternation of generation." For
example, a generation
of both sexes
from
of winged gall-wasps
emerges
After pairing,the
the oak-apple in early summer.
females penetrate the soil,and lay their eggs in the
Familiar
"
"
"
"
"
roots
of the oak.
This
causes
a
crop
of subterrannean
produced, and the grubs that feed therein
become
with the
wingless wasps, all females endowed
faculty of parthenogenesis, or virgin reproduction.
During the winter these insects creep up the oak trunks,
and by layingtheir eggs in the buds, give rise to the
ent
oak-applesof the succeeding spring. Thus two differand what
at first seem
to be two
kinds of
galls,
insects,reallyall belong to one and the same
species.
Our
insects.
small, dark-coloured
Gall-wasps are
be
gallsto
is bred from the well-known
which
marblelargest,1
gallof the oak, is slightlyless than one-sixth of an
observed
in England until
not
inch in length. It was
ing
Yet, notwithstand1834, but is now
very abundant.
male
has been
discovered.
diligentsearch, no
itself,
Apparently the speciesis perpetuating
year after
generations of parthenoyear, through successive
all the Cynipidceare
genetic females ! Not
gallSome
are
parasites,while others are incausers.
they lay their eggs in galls that have
quilines i.e.,
been induced
by other species.
"
Most
of the
ichneumons,
1
of which
Cynips kollari
we
have
very
ANTS,
BEES,
THEIR
AND
WASPS,
KINDRED
111
species,belong to the families
Bmconidce..
They are separated in
Ichneu-
native
many
wonida
and
with
and
the number
arrangement
of the
ance
accord"
cells
"
(areasenclosed by veins)in the fore-wing; but as the
all extremely similar in their general
species are
families as
and habits,we
treat the two
structure
may
Ichneumons
are
one.
slenderly built insects, with
long antennae.
They lay their eggs either in or upon
insects
of other
the larvae or
Lepidopterous
pupae
for the
commonly chosen
caterpillarsbeing most
The females are
provided with ovipositors,
purpose.
of great
which
often
are
conspicuous, sometimes
attack
length. Among the latter are species which
of these
wood-boringlarvae ; and it is stated that some
will drive
their ovipositorsthrough a
considerable
"
thickness
As
a
of timber
in
order
to
grubs do
rule, ichneumon
"
reach
their
victims.
affect the
seriously
their own
development
not
until
vitalityof their hosts
is almost complete. Indeed, the host often preserves
sufficient strength to assume
the pupal state, and
occasionallycompletes its metamorphosis, though this
is rare.
after the parasites
Usually it perishes soon
of the
have
left it to spin their own
One
cocoons.
"
commonest
Braconid
ichneumons
is known
gaster glomeratus. It implants its eggs
as
in the
Micropillars
cater-
in such
numbers
butterfly1
that when
the victims are
full-growntheir skins may
be literally
packed with fat Microgastergrubs. The
and spin their small yellow
latter eventually escape,
round
the body of the larva that
in a mass
cocoons
Although such parasitism
they have done to death.
raises a feelingof repulsion (writes Dr. Sharp), yet
for supposing that there may
be little
there is reason
of the
white
large-
"
1
Pieris brassica.
BRITISH
112
or
no
mode
crueltyor
of life.
parasitesin
The
INSECTS
with
this
eaten,
the
sufferingconnected
acute
victim
attacked
is not
the interior
pillar
takingin the lymph of the catereither by the mouth
or by endosmosis
(i.e.,
through
the skin),
The latter displays
but not bitingtheir host.
that it serves
no
so
signof sickness,but eats voraciously,
the juicesof
merely as a sort of intermediary between
the plant and the larvae inside itself.
The
families Chalcidida and
comprise
Pvoctotvypidcz
numbers
of tiny Hymenoptera.
enormous
They are
diminutive
that they are
so
by the
rarely noticed,save
few entomologistswho
their specialstudy.
make
them
Nevertheless,they are of the utmost
importance to
structi
deof the species are
since many
agriculturists,
very
to field and
garden pests. On the whole,
their
habits
their
range
Chalcids,
resemble
those
of attack
of the
is much
but
ichneumons,
wider.
of the
Some
instance, ovipositin aphides, one
for
egg
being inserted into each victim.
Many of the ProctotrypidcBare
egg-parasites. They lay their eggs in
those of larger insects,and in some
instances half a
dozen
or
more
parasitegrubs find sufficient nutriment
for their development in a single moth's
fact
a
egg
which
ness
minutebears eloquent testimonyto the extreme
of the adult insect.
Among the smallest species
of all are
that enter
the water
in order to lay
some
their eggs in those of dragon -flies.
The
pretty ruby-wasps l are noted for their brilliant
metallic
hues
blue, green, and crimson.
They lay
"
"
their eggs
in the
nests
of bees
grubs were
formerly believed
parasites,"eating up the food
of the rightful
occupants of the
1
and
to
wasps,
feed
stored
nest
Chrysididce.
as
and
"
for the
; but
there
their
cuckoo
benefit
is
now
INSECTS
BRITISH
114
females
the
be
sometimes
busy
the burrow
is complete,
their digging.
with
has the interestinghabit of closingthe
the insect
with a small stone, or a little lump of earth,
entrance
before she sets forth in search of her caterpillar
prey.
be distinguishedfrom all other HymenAnts1
may
optera by the fact that the one or two segments that
nodular in form.
waist
the
are
Moreover,
^constitute
the imperfectly
workers," are
developed females, or
the ants
that we
always wingless; and these are
of a country ramble.
usuallysee during the course
social insects, living together in coAll ants
operative
are
communities, which comprise one or more
sexuallyperfectfemales, or queens, and largenumbers
The
latter build the nests, gather food,
of workers.
here
and
may
When
seen
"
"
"
and
only
any
while
for the young,
care
with
season
but towards
egg-laying. The
to
serves
the queens
concerned
are
bulk of the eggs laid in
the worker
augment
of the
the end
summer
a
population;
brood of winged
is
individuals
produced. These
of them
leave the nest to pair,and althoughmost
are
quickly destroyedby birds and other insectivorous
creatures, a few of the queens succeed in founding new
males
and
females
communities.
It is
a
curious
fact that
a
queen,
after
her wings, or is deprived of
casts
nuptial flight,
Ants' nests
in
formed
them
are
by the workers.
different situations,and in a varietyof ways, according
of the large
Some
the species concerned.
to
horse-ant2
is the best
or
kinds, of which the woodof fir needles, small
known, build up huge mounds
and chambers
that
galleries
twigs, etc., and excavate
extend
far into the ground below.
Others, such as
the common
of earth,
yellowant,3 throw up hummocks
her
1
Formicidee.
2
Formica
rufa.
3
Lasius
flavus.
BEES,
ANTS,
which
make
again,
bramble
clothed
become
soon
AND
WASPS,
KINDRED
THEIR
with
vegetation. Others,
in
habitations
their
stems, among
in
wood,
rotten
beneath
or
moss,
115
The
stones.
sting is
popular belief that ants, or "emmets," can
The
true.
large ants of the fir woods
only partially
have no
stingingapparatus, although they are able to
into
ejectan acid poison from the tipof the abdomen
that they have made
a wound
by biting. Some of our
of an
small ants, however, have stings. The members
ant community do not die off at the approach of winter,
nate.
but retire to subterranean
chambers, where they hibernoted for their habit of allowing,or
Ants
are
in
other insects to live with them
actuallyencouraging,
their nests.
Among these "guests" are aphides and
secretions are palatable
certain kinds of beetles,whose
to
the
ants
there
; but
are
other
insects which
appear
that they
give nothing in return for the hospitality
receive,and why these should be tolerated is not known.
The true wasps,1 as distinct from the digger-wasps,
be easilyrecognized by the
referred to above, may
the
fact that the fore- wing is folded lengthwisewhen
half of the wing being
insect is at rest, the hinder
to
doubled
under
the
front half.
this character
aware,
seen
far
in any
familyis divided into two
solitary wasps2 and the
viz., the
of the
former
group
have
the writer is
as
other
Hymen-
sub-families
The
optera.
Members
is not
So
social
wasps.3
spine
one
"
the
on
it joins the tarsus, and
leg where
the tarsal claws of all the legsare toothed.
Further,
the speciesare
they do not live
solitaryin habit" i.e.,
in communities, but each female builds and provisions
tibia of the middle
her
own
members
1
nest-cells
of her
without
Our
kind.
Vespidce.
2
assistance
from
sixteen British
Eumeninct.
3
other
speciesare
Vespince.
1
16
BRITISH
INSECTS
marked
small, black insects,stripedand
Fifteen
belong to
of them
the
with
yellow.
Odynerus. They
genus
in burrows, in
plant stems, and in the
of the species have
crevices of masonry
; while some
in the holes of
been known
to build in door-locks,and
One individual actually
etc.
blind-tassels,
cotton-reels,
made
her nest in the barrel of an
old pistolthat had
make
their nests
been
left in
outhouse.
an
It is often stated
that
these
constructingtheir cells ; but
of dry soil,
which they
at least,employ particles
some,
sixteenth
cement
together with their saliva. The
It builds its
species1has a remarkably long waist."
globular nests on the twigs of low-growing plants,
usually choosing heather
(Plate XI.). All our
Eunienincz provisiontheir cells with tiny caterpillars,
of
after the manner
which
they paralyzeby stinging,
the digger-wasps.
social wasps
of the sub-family Vespinahave
The
the middle
tibial spines on
two
leg, and their tarsal
insects
mud
use
when
"
claws
are
toothed.
not
There
appear
be
to
seven
British
species,includingthe hornet,2 although the
number
is stated by some
authors
to be eight. A
hornet may be easilyrecognizedby its size
small
a
worker
hornet being larger than
any
queen
wasp
and
and
yellow livery,all the
by its reddish-brown
being black and yellow,and very much alike
wasps
The
three commoner
in appearance.
species usually
build under
ground, while two others generallyhang
"
"
"
"
their nests
from
the
branches
of
a
tree
or
shrub.
A
species,of which no workers are known, seems
of
of one
not to build at all,but to breed in the nests
hornet
builds as a rule in
the ground species. The
hollow trees, or in the roofs of outhouses, barns, etc.,
sixth
1
Eumcnis
coarctata.
2
Vespacrabro.
for winter
food
Social wasps
store
communities
hibernate like those
close of each
no
use,
nests.
nor
do
the
At
the
of the ants.
ing
work-
the whole
and
all the drones
season
1 17
subterranean
occasionally makes
it
though
KINDRED
THEIR
AND
BEES, WASPS,
ANTS,
populationof the nest perish,only the young queens
the
with
These, having mated
remaining alive.
weather
sets in,betake themselves
drones before severe
where
to dry, sheltered hiding-places,
they lie dormant
each comes
forth,
of spring. Then
until the advent
constructs
nest, and
small
these
From
laysa few eggs therein.
beginnings the great wasp com
small
a
develop. The queen's
seems
well-nighinexhaustible,and for many
fertility
weeks
are
produced. In this way
only workers
is provided for the enlargement of the nest,
labour
of the queen's enormous
and for the nurture
family.
of sexless units continues
This amazing multiplication
the
of
munities
late
summer
"
"
destined
"
The
reared.
is
to
queens
young
the continuityof the species are
secure
"
material
kind
reallya
used
of paper,
vegetable fibre,worked
The
a
is not
nest
house, but
branch
in
or
by
from
made
up
built up from
is hung from
with
a
The
are
extended,
when
or
nest-building
wood
or
other
insect's saliva.
foundation
as
we
build
support, such
some
the
combs
the
of
It consists of combs
root.
for
wasps
grubs are reared,
latter is continuallycut away
which
and
drones
the
when
until the autumn,
and
new
and
a
as
hexagonalcells.,
an
outer
renewed
ones
are
cover.
as
the
added.
omnivorous, but they are
practically
tained,
partialto sweet liquids. It has been ascerespecially
however, that the food brought to the grubs
Adult
wasps
consists
The
are
largelyof
great bee
the soft parts of insects.
family1is representedin
i
Apida.
Britain
by
BRITISH
118
INSECTS
divided
into three
are
species. These
main
the
or
sub-families, according to
groups
of the tongue
length and structure
(hypopharynx).
some
200
But
all bees
have
certain characters
in
which
common
of the
them
from
other members
distinguish
order
They are
essentiallyflowerHymenoptera.
and
nectar
on
lovers,and feed their young exclusively
the microhairs under
scope,
a bee's
pollen. If we examine
to
serve
shall
we
find
minutely branched,
that
at
least
of them
some
are
plumose. That these specialized
hairs are
of great value in entangling and collecting
be doubted, although this may
not
pollen cannot
be their sole function,seeingthat they are
possessed,
and worker, but also by male
not only by the females
bees and
cuckoo
bees, neither of which
gather
pollen. Bees may also be known
by the enlargement
of the basal joint of each
hind
This
tarsus.
joint,
the tibia,is
which
in many
instances is as broad
as
termed
the metatarsus
or
planta. It often plays an
stiff
important part in the work of pollen-gathering,
hairs on its inner surface serving to rake or brush the
pollengrains from the hairs of the body. But different
kinds of bees collect and
their pollen in
carry home
different ways.
Indeed, the appliances and methods
stood,
little underso
are
so
cases
varied, and in many
gation
that
they present a wide field for investiand
discovery. By far the larger number
of our
in their habits.
native bees are
Many
solitary
in burrows, either in the ground, in
their nests
make
take advantage
wood, or in the pith of plant-stems. Others
in this respect
of existing
holes and crannies
The
cells
of the solitarywasps.
resembling some
which
contain the grubs and their supply of food may
"
or
"
"
be
mere
chambers
excavated
in the
soil.
But
the
ANTS,
mason-bees
plant.
the
in
and
stems
a
which
all, but
fruits
Some
of
their
true
well
as
and
the
in
females,
hive-bee.4
of
the
which
persist
species
one
alone
1
3
and
dwell
Megachik.
Bombus.
\vaxen
leaves
of
at
on
fatten.
grubs
colonies,
many
proximity
workers
;
as
humble-bees
the
of
nests
species,
close
by
3
humble-bees
the
nest
"-
carders
"
like
"
"
fertile
4
Apis
or
cities."
Anthidium
manicatum.
mellifica.
the
social
perpetuation
each
nests
abiding
*
of
females,
new
of
those
the
only
found
surface
the
on
upon
in
known
"
season
depending
hibernate
Hive-bees
in
communities,
for
make
other
others
etc.,
moss,
Their
ground.
wasps,
of
the
form
species
chambers,
piles
from
cuckoo's
only
Some
of
comprising
formed
are
nest
not
of
nests
communities,
subterranean
beneath
their
other
or
wax
cuckoo-bees,
do
solitary bees
building
social
The
the
industry
whose
so-called
the
its
cells
the
living
One,
collected
genera,
in
eggs
of
bees1
the
bodies.
plants.
several
are
individuals
but
certain
from
cells
own
down
cemented
leaf-cutter
cut
their
their
white
of
of
The
19
1
earth
or
bee,2 envelops
of
lay
sand
they
form
from
mass
there
the
which
wool-carder
cells
of
KINDRED
saliva.
species
secreted
THEIR
cells
own
leaves,
of
Other
material
as
their
with
pieces
use
their
build
together
AND
WASPS,
BEES,
queens,
spring.
BRITISH
120
OUTLINE
INSECTS
CLASSIFICATION
OF
BRITISH
INSECTS
Class
Hexapoda
:
Sub-class
Order
(or Insecta).
Apterygota (winglessinsects).
Aptera.
Sub-order
: (a) Thysanura
(Bristle-tails).
Sub-order
: (b)Collembola
(Spring-tails).
:
i.
Sub-class
Order
Exopterygota (wings developed visiblyoutside the
cuticle).
2.
Dermaptera (Earwigs).
3. Orthoptera (Cockroaches, grasshoppers, crickets, etc.).
Order
4.
Plecoptera (Stone-flies).
Order
5.
Corrodentia.
Order
:
Sub-order
:
Sub-order
:
(Book-lice, etc.).
(b)Mallophaga i Biting lice).
Ephemeroptera
(May-flies).
(a) Copeognatha
Order
6.
Order
7.
8.
Thysanoptera (Thrips, or flower-insects).
9.
Hemiptera.
Order
Order
(Dragon-flies).
Odonata
Sub-order:
Sub-order
:
(a) Heteroptera (Bugs).
(b)Homoptera
(Frog-hoppers, aphides, scales,
etc.).
Order
10.
Sub-class
Anoplura (Lice).
Endopterygota
:
larval
(wings
developed
beneath
the
visible after
Order
n.
cuticle,only
penultimate moult).
Neuroptera (Alder-flies,
lacewings,etc.).
Order
12.
Coleoptera (Beetles).
Order
(Scorpion-flies).
13. Mecaptera
Order
14. Trichoptera (Caddis-flies).
Order
15. Lepidoptera (Butterfliesand moths).
Order
16. Diptera.
Sub-order
: (a) Orthorrhapha
(Midges, gnats, crane-flies,
etcj.
Sub-order
:
flies,
(b)Cyclorrhapha (Hover-flies,
house-flies,bot-
etc.).
Order
Order
17.
18.
Siphonaptera (Fleas).
Hymenoptera.
: (a)Symphyta
(Saw-flies).
Sub-order
:
(b)Apocrita (Gall-wasps, ichneumons,
Sub-order
ants, bees, etc.).
wasps,
INSECTS
BRITISH
122
68
Blister-beetle,
Blood-sucking flies,habits of,
98
"Blood-worms,"
97
Bloody-nose beetle,69
Bluebottle-flies,
103
Blue
of
Board
60
Agriculture
and
Fisheries, leaflets issued by,
44
Bombus, 119
Bombylius, 100
BombyliidcE,100
Book-louse,
6
33
in
of insect, 10
Bramble-leaf
miner-moth,
Cells"
Cerci,
85
81
(ofwings), in
8
Cercopides,
50
Cerura. 88
61
Bread-beetle, 76
butterfly,
92
Bristle-tails,"
17
tory),
Museum
(Natural Hismodels
in, 95
British
scale, 54
BruchidcB, 69
Bruchus, 69
Brown
Buff-tipmoth;
Burnet-moths,
Chironomidce
moths,
83
moth,
81, 90
Butterflies,
86
97
,
Chitin, 8
Chrysalis, 13
Chrysidida,112
88
Chrysis,113
Chrysomela,69
Chrysomelidce69
75
Burying-beetles,
Bush-cheep, 28
,
et seq.
galls,no
Button"
Chequered -skipper butterfly,
9i
88
Burnished-brass
Cetonia,66
Chafers, 65
112
Chalcidid"8t
Chameleon-flies, 99
China-marks
"Bug, "45
"
Carpocapsa,84
Cassida,70
Caterpillar,13,
Catocala,87
Cecidomyia,96
Cecidomyidce96
Centrotus,50
Cephida, 108
Cephus, 108
Cerambycidcs,70
Ceratopogon,97
Brain
"
Carpet-moths, 88
1 '
Brachycera,99
Brimstone
H.,
,
Bonus,
102
Bot-flies,
"Bots," 103
Botys, 86
Brachinus, 64
Brauer,
G.
Cellar-beetle,67
1
Brachonida,
68
Carpenter. Professor
quoted, 9, 44
butterflies,
91
Bombardier-beetle,
Cantharidine, 68
Cap sides,48
Capsus,48
CarabicUs,63
C ambus, 63
Cardinal-beetle,
Byturus,76
Chrysophanus,93
Chrysopida,59
Churchyard-beetle,67
Cicadas, 50
Cabbage-moth,
88
Caddis-flies,
79
et seq.
"
Caddis-worms,"
Calandra, 72
42
Calopteryx,
Campodea,
18
70
Cicadidcz,
50
Cicindela,63
Cicindclida,
63
Cimex, 45
Classification
of
insects,14
Clay-colouredweevil, 73
123
INDEX
Clearwing-moths,83
101
Cyclorrhapha,
"Cleg, "99
Click-beetles,
77
Clothes-moths, 85
Cynipida:,
109
no
Cynips,
92
Clouded-yellowbutterflies,
Clover-weevils,
73
Dactylopius,
54
Daddy-longlegs, 99
Clytus,71
Danaince, 93
Darwin, Charles, 15
CoccidcB
53
Dasychira,87
Coccinella,
76
Coccinellidce,
76
Cockchafer, 66
Cockroach, American, 24
Cockroach, German, 24
Cockroaches, 22
et seq.
Death-watch,"
"
33. 77
dragon-flies,
42
Demoiselle
Dermaptera,
19
Dermestes, 76
Dermestida, 76
of insects, IT
"Cock-tails, "'75
Codlin-moth, 84
Development
Coleoptera,62
Digger-wasps, 113
"Devil's
et seq.
Dimera,
horse," 75
coach
50 et seq.
Collembola,
Colorado-beetle,70
Diptera, 94
60
Coniopterygidat
Donacia,
Copeognatha,
Dragon-flies,36
18
34
et seq.
70
91
Copper-butterflies,
86
Drepanvlidtf,
CoreidcB,46
Corixa, 49
Drinker-moth,
saw-fly,108
-
Corn-weevil, 72
Corrodentia,
Cossidce,84
Cossus, 84
Cottony
86
Drone-fly,102
Doryphora,70
of Burgundy
Duke
butterfly,
92
Cornicles, 52
Corn
et seq.
-
beetle,66
Dumble-dor
33
fritillary
Dung-beetles,66
scale, 54
cushion
Dytiscida,64
Dytiscus,64
6
Coxa,
CvambincB, 86
Crane-flies,96,
Cremaster,
Crickets,
"Ears"
Earwigs,
19 et seq.
Ectobia, 22
28
Crioceris,70
Cryptocerata, 46
53
Cryptococcus,
119
112
parasites,
Cuckoo-spit,"50
Cuckoo
"
grasshoppers, 25,
27
99
92
Cuckoo-bees,
of
Eggar-moths, 86
Egg-parasites,112
Eggs of insects,
Elaterida,77
Elm-bark
beetle,74
Elytra,7,
19, 62
"
Emmets,"
115
Culex, 98
Culicida,97
CuYculionidcB)72
Endromis,
Currant-blister
Ephemera, 36
Emperor-moth,
aphis,52
Currant-clearwing moth, 83
Cuticle
of insect,8
91
Cyclopcedes,
n
90
90
34
Ephemeridcz,
Ephemeroptera,
86
Ephestia,
34
BRITISH
124
Epidermis,
skin, of
true
or
INSECTS
Goat-moth,
84
"Golden-eyes,"
insect, 8
102
Eristalis,
Erminemoths, 87
Eumenes, 116
EumenincB, 115
of insect, 9
Exoskeleton
Eyes of insects,compound, 5
Eyes, simple,5
Gomphus, 41
Gooseberry saw-fly,109
Grasshopper, large-green,28
Grasshoppers, long-horned, 27
Felted-beech
53
coccus,
Femur, 6
Field-cricket,29
"Fire
brat,"
86
Flesh-flies,103,
Flies, 94 et seq.
Flour-moth, 86
104
Flower-insects,"43
87
Footmen-moths,
"
Forester-moths, 83
Forficula,
19
Forficulida,
19
Formica.
114
ox
gad-fly, 100
water-beetle, 64
Greenbottle
-flies,
103
Green-fly," 51
Green
Fleas,105
horned,
Great
"
18
-
25. 27
Great
16
short
Grasshoppers,
Grass-moths,
Family,
59
Gomphocera, 26
84
cak-moth,
"Grey-drake," 36
Grey gnat, 36
Ground-beetles,
63
of insects, n
Growth
Grub, 13
Gryllida,24, 28
29
Gryllotalpa,
Gryllus,29
Gymnocerata, 46
Gyrinida, 74
Formicida, 114
Fossors,
113
92, 93
Fritillary-butterflies,
Frog-hoppers, 49,
51
Gad-flies, 99
Galea of maxilla, 63
Galleriana, 86
Gall-midges,96
Galls, 52, 71, 109
Gall-wasps, 109
Ganglia, 10
Gastropacha,86
Head
89
of insect,
2
Hewcrobiina, 58
Hemiptera, 44
Hepialida,82
Hepialus,82
Hesperida,91
Heteromera, 67
Heteroptera, 45, 46
Hexapoda, i
Hippobtisca,
104
15
Gerris. 47
Hippoboscida,104
Geotrupes,67
moth,
Ghost
swift
Giant
wood-wasp,
Gills,32, 36,
Glow-worm,
Gnathopoda,
94,
butterflies,91
96
Hessian-fly,
Geometrida, 88
Gnats,
Hairstreak
Halteres, 94
Hawk-moths,
Fulgoridce,
50
Genus,
Hamatopota, 99
Haemoglobin, 97
39,
82
Hive-bees,
108
Homoptera,
56, 80
"
i
97,
49 et seq.
Honey-dew,"52
"
Hook-tip moths,
77
96,
119
98
Hop-dog." 87
"Hoppers,"
50
86
125
INDEX
Hornet, 116
Horse-ant,
Lariidce,69
Larva,
114
12
Horse-bean
86
Lasiocampidcs,
"
Lasius, 114
galls,109
Horse-stingers,"41
House-cricket,
Latter,
29
House-flies,103
Hover-flies,
Howard,
Humble-bees,
O., 59
L.
Leaf
"
-rollingweevils, 73
jackets,"99
119
Lecanium,
Hydrophilous,
75
Lepidoptera,80
Hylemia, 104
Hylurgus,74
Hymenoptera,
Hypo derm a, 103
Lepisma, 17
Libellula,
41
106
et seq.
Hypopharynx,
105
Hystrichopsylla,
LemoniidcB, 92
Lice, 54
tida, 24, 26
"Long-horns," 69
Longicornia, 69
Longicorns, 70
93
Long-tailed blue butterfly,
89
caterpillars,
Looper
Locus
no
Procris
Inquilines,no
Instinct, n
"
"
Jugum, 79
52
"Jumping plant-lice,"
Lucanidce, 65
Lucanus, 65
Lucas,
"
Ked," 104
Kentish-glory moth,
Kitten-moths, 88
Labia, 19
Labium,
Labrum,
et seq.
Locusta, 28
lassida,51
Ickntumonida,in
See
Legs
54
of insects, 6
Lingua, 4
Linnaeus, 15
LiparidcB. See Lymantridce
Locust, 26
4, 118
Ino.
quoted
Leather-
Humming-bird hawk-moth,
Hydrocampina,47
Hydrophilidte,
74
Ichneumons,
H.,
20, 113
Leaf -cuttingbees, 119
101
Dr.
O.
Mr.
90
W.
Mr.
J., quoted,
38-9, 40
Lyccena. See Polyommatus
91
Lyctenidcs,
Lyg"idce, 46
86
LymantridfS,
Lytta,68
4
3
Lacewings, 55, 58
Lacewings, eggs of, 59
Lackey-moth, 86
Ladybirds, 76
Machilis, 18
Lamellicornia, 65
Malacodermidcg, 77
Malarial
fever, 98
Lampyridee,77
Lampyris, 77
Land-bugs, 46
Lantern-flies,50
Lappet-moth,
86
93
Large-copper butterfly,
1
1 1
butterfly,
Large-white
Macroglossa,89
Maggot, 13
Magpie moth, 89
Mallophaga,
Mamestra,
34
88
Mandibles,
3
"Marble
galls,"no
Marbled-white
butterfly,
93
Mason-bees,
119
126
BRITISH
102
Narcissus-fly,
66
"May-bug,"
May-flies,34
May-flies,eyes of,35
Maxillce,3
butterflies,
92,
Meadow-brown
INSECTS
NattcoridcB,48
Naucoris, 48
Necrophorus,75
N rides,46
Nematocera, 96
93
Nematus,
Mealworms, 67
"Mealy-bugs," 54
Mecaptera, 60
Nc/a, 48
28
Meconema,
109
Nemeobius, 92
Nemobius, 28
Megachile,119
Melanaygia,93
Ncpida, 48
Melasoma, 69
Nervous
Mdoe, 68
Meloloutha,66
Melophagus, 104
Nervures
Membracidce,50
"Niggers," 76
Noctuida, 87
"Nose-horns,"
Notodontida, 88
Merodon,
Neptmtla, 85
system of insects, 9
(ofwings),7
Neuroptera,
New
102
Mesonotum,
45
Mesothorax,
6
Metamorphosis, n
Metamorphosis of aphides,51
Metamorphosis,
significance
of, 13
Metatarsus,
118
Metathorax,
6
Notonecta,
55
fly,104
Forest
48, 49
Notonectidcs,48
Nut-weevil, 72
Nymph, 12
Nymphalidce,92
NymphalincB,93
in
Microgaster,
82
MicropterygidcB,
Midges, ;6, 97
Migration of aphides,51
Migration of dragon-flies,
41
Nysitts,
47
93
Milkweed-butterfly,
Odonata, 36
Odonestis,86
"
Mimicry, 84, 89
"Oak-apples,"
Ocellus, 5,
Ocypus, 75
Monarch-butterfly,93
Monomera,
OEstrus, 103
50, 53
See
seq.
Mole-cricket,
29
Gnats
Oil-beetle,68
Onion-fly,104
92
Orange-tipbutterfly,
of
insects,16
Mouth-parts of insects,3
Orders
Musca, 103
Muscida, 103
87
Orgyi'a,
Orneodes,85
Orneodidce,85
Orthoptera, 21
Museum-beetle, 76
Musk-beetle, 71
Mussel-scale,
53
Mytilaspis,
53
Nabis, 48
Latin, of insects, 16
Names,
no
52
Odynerus, 116
102
CEstridcB,
Monanthia, 47
Mosquitoes.
Moths, 80 et
92
Orthorrapha, 95
Ovipositor,8
Osmylince,58
Osmylus, 58
Otiorhynchus,
73
INDEX
127
Oviparous aphides,51
Owl-moths, 87
Psychides,83
Psylla,52
Psy Hides,52
Pale-tussock
Pterophoridce,
85
Panovpa,
moth, 87
'
*
Pterophorus,85
61
60
Panorpidcs,
PtinidcB,76
Papilio,92
PapilionidcB,
92
Pug-moths, 88
Pulvinaria,54
Pupa, 12
Pupa, "free," denned,
Puparium, 101
Parasitism,
in
Parthenogenesis,51, no
Paste-beetle,
76
Pea
and bean.thrips,
44
Periplaneta,
24
la, 33
Per lid cs, 31
Phalera,88
Queen
Rain
51
88
P/wst'0,
Polymorpha,
74
Polyommatus, 93
Pompilidce,113
Pond-skaters, 47
Poplar hawk-moth,
89
Potato-bug," 70
hawk-moth, 89
Proboscis,80
Procris, 83
112
Proctotrypidce,
Privet
Psocidce,34
breeze-fly,
99
Raphidia,57
Raphidiidcs,57
Raspberry beetle, 76
Rat-tailed
maggots,
102
Red-underwing moth, 87
Reduviidce,47
Reduvius, 48
Reed
moth, 84
Reproduction, virgin.
Parthenogenesis
Retinaculum, 81
Rhagium, 71
Robber-flies, 100
Rose-beetles, 66
Rostrum, 44
Rove-beetles, 75
Ruby-wasps,
112
Sailor-beetles,
77
Sand-midges, 97
88
Saperda,7
62
Savcophagince,104
resemblance, 87,
6
fritillary
Spain
Rice-weevil,72
"
Prothorax,
-
Rhopalosiphum,52
Rhynchophora, 72
Poplar-leaf-beetle,
69
Poplar long-horn beetle, 71
Prominent-moths,
Pronotum, 45, 51,
of
Ranatra, 48
Phytophaga, 69
PieridcB,92
Pieris,16, 93, in
Pine-bark
beetle, 74
Pine long-horn beetle, 71
Planta, 118
Plant-lice,51
Plecoptera,31
Plume-moths,
-
butterfly,
93
Phasgonuridcs,24, 27
Phragmatcecia,
84
Phryganea, 80
Phyllodromia,24
Phyllotreta,
70
Protective
Purple-emperor butterfly,
93
Puss-moth, 88
Pyralidcz,
85
Pyrochroa,68
Pentatomidce,46
Per
62
Saturnia, go
SaturniidcB, 90
Satyvines,93
S
ee
BRITISH
128
Saw-flies, 109
Scale insects,49, 50,
Scales
INSECTS
Stag-beetles,
65
Staphylinides,
75
53
Steel-blue
(on wings),80
wood-wasp,
Scarab ceidcB,66
Stem
Schizoneura, 52
Stenobothrus,26
"
saw-flies,
198
Stick"
89
caterpillars,
Scolytidce,
73
Scolytus,74
Sting, 109
60
Scorpion-flies,
"Stink-flies,"
59
Scutellum,
Stomoxys, 103
45, 51, 62
Sesia, 83
Stone-flies,31
Semdce, 83
Sir atiomyides,99
Sex-dimorphism,
90
Sexton-beetles,75
Sharp, Dr. D., quoted, 57,
in,
192
Sheep-nostril
fly,103
Sheep-tick,"104
11
99,
Stridulating organs,
Stylopidce,
78
Symphyta, 107
Syromaster,46
Syrphidce,101
Swallow-tail
Shield-bugs,46
Sialidce,
56
Tabanidce,99
Sialis,56
Tabanus,
Silk-glands,58
Silpha,75
Silphidcz,
75
Tarsus,
100
TachinincBy
104
6
Silver-fish,"17
Tegmina, 19
Telephoms, 77
"
Silver-lady,"17
Tenebrio, 67
Simulidce, 97
Tenthvedinictce,
109
Siphonaptera,105
Termites,
7V#t'#, 26
108
Siricidce,
Sitodrepa. See Anobium
"Skipjacks," 77
Skipper-butterflies,
91
Small magpie-moth, 86
33
Thamnotrizon, 28
Thermobia, 18
of insect, 2,
Thorax
Thysanoptera, 43
Snake-flies,55, 57
Snow-flies," 52
Thysanura,
Social
wasps,
115
Soldier-beetles,77
Soldier-flies,
99
Solitarywasps, 115
"Spangle" galls,no
"Spanish-fly,"68
6
Thrips, 43
Thrips,44
Smerinthus, 89
"
25
butterfly,
92
"
Sirex, 108
108
Tibia,
18
6
63
Tiger-beetles,
Tiger-moth, 87
Timarcha, 69
Timberman-beetle,
Tineidce,85
71
Sphinx,89
Tineola,85
TingididcB,
47
Tipula,99
Tipulidte,
99
Tongue of insect, 4,
Spiracles,9
Tortoise-beetles,70
18
"Spring-tails,"
Tortoiseshell-butterfly,
92
Squama,
84
TortricidcB,
Species, 15
Sphegida, 113
SphingidcB,89
101
118
BY
BRITAIN
GREAT
IN
PRINTED
ENGLAND
GUILDFORD,
LTD.,
SONS,
BILLING
AND