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• Head
• Mouthparts (part 1)
• Mouthparts (part 2)
• Thorax & Abdomen (part 1)
• Thorax and Abdomen (part 2)
• Cockroach dissection
 B.K. Mitchell & J.S. Scott
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
The Insect Head
Insects are strongly cephalized animals, that is, many of the important
functions are moved anteriorly with a high degree of merging or
condensing of segments, sensory structures and neural ganglia. This
module illustrates the preceding statement. Additional information on
the insect head can be found in the mouthpart module.
Six or seven segments are condensed to form the head capsule. This
strong structure provides protection for the brain, support for eyes,
ocelli, antennae and mouthparts. The strongest muscles in the head
serve the mandibles in chewing insects and the sucking pump in
piercing-sucking insects.
The hard exoskeleton that is a common feature of arthropods is
particularly well illustrated in the head. The lesser appreciated internal
cuticular support structures are also well represented by the crossbracing tentorium.
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Back View
*
B.K.Mitchell and J.S.Scott
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Alberta
retinular
layer
lens
layer
In cockroaches, the
head is very flexibly
attached to the thorax
via an extensive neck
membrane (arrow). The
oesophagus, heart,
tracheal system, and
nervous system all pass
through the foramen at
the back of the head
oesophagus
antlion larva
scorpion
fly
Prognathous
Leaf
beetle
tsetse fly
1
3
1 - labral
2
2 - antennal
4
3 - intercalary
5
4 - mandibular
6
5 - maxillary
6 - labial
Jake Remple, a Canadian
entomologist, summarized
this interpretation of insect
head segmentation based
on a careful examination
of developing embryos of
the blister beetle Lytta.
The three anterior segments required developmental analysis to confirm
their presence. The acron is homologous with the front part of the body of
bi-laterally symmetrical animals such as the earthworm and is not
considered a true segment because it lacks a pair of appendages.
oesophagus
This is a scanning
electron micrograph of the
right side of a leafhopper
embryo.
antenna
frontal ganglion
neuropil
nerve
tract
recurrent nerve
antennal nerve
optic lobe
corpus cardiacum
corpus allatum
hypocerebral
ganglion
8
The inside of the head
contains more than the
brain, of course. There are
many muscles that
operate the various
appendages - the
mouthpart muscles being
particularly complex.
This cleared whole mount
reveals another aspect of
the head that is often
overlooked - the tentorium
(red arrows).
The tentorium is the “internal skeleton” which gives strength to the head
capsule and provides a place for muscle attachment. It is formed by tubeshaped invaginations of the exoskeleton. The mandibles, maxillary and
labial palpi are all visible in this frontal view.
12
labellar
nerve
The suboesophageal
ganglion (SOG) of
all insects serves
the major
mouthparts and
it’s therefore much
involved with
feeding. This
picture is of a
frontal section
through the SOG
of a fly.
A typical ganglion (functional concentration of nerve cells) is composed of
a peripheral region of cell bodies (nerve and glial cells - red) and a region
of nerve to nerve connections called the neuropil.
The green arrow marks the boundary between the head and thorax.
Ventral is down and anterior is to the right.
9
1
2
3
4
5
corpus pedunculatum
archicerebrum
prosocerebrum
deutocerebrum
tritocerebrum
commisure
labral nerve
nervus connectivus
nervus recurrens
frontal ganglion
nervus procurrens
6
1
2
3
commisure
4
5
6
The largest structure in the head-neck region is the brain and suboesophageal ganglion complex. The oesophagus passes between these two
major masses of nervous tissue. These are dorsal and lateral views
respectively. The numbers correspond to the segmentation numbers of the
previous slide.
7
6
5
eye
3
The last three segments
are easy to see at all
stages of development
(mandibular, maxillary and
labial) because they bear
obvious bi-lateral
appendages.
acron
This is a dark adapted eye so the pigments are all at one end.
This increases light scattering but it increases sensitivity.
Drawing of dissected cockroach
head showing brain and related
nerves. Frontal and hypocerebral
ganglia are part of the
stomatogastric nervous system,
while the corpora cardiaca and
corpora allata are part of the
hormonal system.
Hypognathous
2
HEAD OF INSECT
Acron + 6 segments
Opisthorhynchous
cicada
water
beetle
larva
This section through a compound
eye shows some of the features.
The lens layer is in red, the retinular
layer in black and gray and the first
of three parts of the optic lobe in
blue-gray.
4
Tiger
beetle
stalkfly
The retinular layer contains the
sensory cells (six to eight per
ommatidium). The dark layer just
under the lens layer contains
pigments that help reduce light
scattering during the day.
optic
lobe
The three most prominent arrangements of the head have been given the
names Prognathous, Hypognathous and Opisthorhynchous.
Plant bug
1
The compound eyes are often the most
prominent structures on the insect head.
Immatures and adults of hemimetabolous
insects have them, as do adult
hometabola. Insect compound eyes have
thousands of more or less equivalent
sensory cartridges called ommatidia. Each
ommatidium has a hexagonal lens
(hundreds in focus in this picture) and six
to eight light-sensitive cells. Single
homologous sensory cells from numerous
adjacent ommatidia respond to light in
their limited field of view and send the
information to the same place in the optic
lobe of the brain. The image formed in the
insect brain is not as detailed as ours but
insects can be exquisitely sensitive to
movement in the visual field. They also
can see in colour.
COCKROACH BRAIN - dorsal aspect
Insect heads take many shapes reflecting the characteristic feeding habits
of the species concerned. For example, predaceous insects have forward
directed mouthparts with a corresponding forward protrusion of the head.
The predators in this collage of photos are probably obvious.
Grasshoppers and cockroaches
(drawings) are often used to illustrate the
most basic form of the insect head. The
eye is often prominent and the
mouthparts can seem strange to us. The
evolutionary flexibility of the four
mouthpart segmental appendages is the
theme of the mouthpart segment of this
series.
brain
oesophagus
cell
body
10
suboesophageal
ganglion
This unusual view of the
suboesophageal ganglion (SOG)
of a flesh fly shows the brain and
SOG in the same orientation as
the previous picture. Use the
oesophagus as a reference
point. Here a single neuron has
been filled with a fluorescent dye
to reveal its extensive branching
pattern in the SOG and in the
brain. The cell body of this
neuron is the bright dot just
above the cell body label. This
neuron is one of many that
process taste input from the
labellar sensilla.
11
The American cockroach
(Periplaneta americana) has
“generalized” mouthparts. This
insect is omnivorous and its
mouthparts are well suited to
chewing on a wide variety of
food items.
Mouthparts of Insects
Insects owe their great success to their abilities to adapt to a
wide variety of habitats. Adaptations have occurred, indeed
continue to occur, at every level of organization from the
molecular to the ecological. The comparative study of insect
mouthparts is first and foremost a study of adaptation. We
single out mouthparts and the gross morphological level of
organization in introductory courses because the variety of
adaptations is so great that we can address vast landscapes
of insect evolution by looking at mouthparts alone. Also, they
are relatively easy to see and appreciate and, perhaps most
important, the mouthparts are entral to insect trophic
behaviour cfood gathering behaviour).
Supported in part by
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and Faculty of Science, University of Alberta
©
e
labium
galea
mandible
maxillary
palp
antenna
mandible
maxillary
labial
palp
palp
hypopharynx
lacinia
galea
eye
cardo
labium
stipes
maxilla
This posterior view of the
cockroach head shows
additional features as well as
the various mouthpart
appendages.
Note the complexity of the
maxilla and labium.
See next slide for additional
details.
prementum
mentum
submentum
labium
cardo
paraglossa
mandible
prestomen
labrum
mandible
maxillary palp
3
1
2
submentum
mentum
prementum
glossa
paraglossa
4
maxilla
hypopharynx
galea
The blue arrow shows where
the maxilla attaches to the
head.
maxillary palp
lacinia
maxilla
Hidden among the maxillae
and labium is the “tongue”
or hypopharynx. It has very
thin (membranous) cuticle
and contains the opening of
the salivary gland duct.
The labium is the most
complex of the cockroach
mouthparts and exists as a
single piece rather than as
two distinct, mirror image
parts as in the maxillae. This
single labium is clearly
formed from a fusion of bilateral appendages as the
paired palpi, glossae and
paraglossae reveal.
stipes
labial palp
This detailed view of a
cockroach maxilla clearly shows
the sclerites that make up this
complex appendage. The
darker the cuticle the heavier
the tanning and usually the
heavier the sclerotization. Thus,
the lightest cuticle is
membranous-like and semitransparent while the darkest
cuticle is hard.
stipes
Note the well sclerotized
mandibular “teeth” (black ridges
in lower center) and the
protruding galeae/laciniae and
paraglossa. The mandibles
appear to be at the front since the
labrum which largely covers them
is transparent in this cleared
specimen.
antenna
The mouthpart-bearing
segments are the labral,
mandibular, maxillary and labial.
Two of the segments (mx and
lab) have sensory palpi as well
as other functional parts.
cardo
paraglossa
maxillary
palp
prementum
B.K.Mitchell and J.S.Scott
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Alberta
This frontal view of a cockroach
head gives a better idea of what
the mouthparts look like in situ.
The tentorium is also visible (see
module on the head in this
series).
eye
labial
labrum palp
glossa
labial palp
The mouthparts are well
developed in cockroaches. Each
mouthpart pair comprise the two
bi-lateral appendages of their
segment.
maxilla
antenna
foramen
magnum
labial
palp
5
This labium was taken from the
same specimen as the maxilla in
the previous slide. Note that much
of the cuticle is thin, so much so
that the muscles operating the
labial palpi are visible (blue
arrowheads ).
You may be asked to
dissect the mouthparts of a
cockroach in the laboratory
and this is what your final
dissection should look like.
The parts are arranged in
the order of segmentation
from anterior (bottom) to
posterior (top). The
hypopharynx is the only part
that is not a true segmental
appendage but rather a
modified part of the
prostomium (foregut).
labium
maxilla
maxilla
Compare the tips of the galea and
lacinia in the previous slide with the
glossae and paraglossae in this
photo. All are dark indicating
hardened cuticle. These structures
are used to manipulate food.
hypopharynx
mandible
mandible
labrum
ANTERIOR
By contrast, the tips of the palpi in
both appendages are covered with
membranous cuticle and, as we will
see later, with many sensory pegs.
7
6
Dipteran mouthpart modifications
REVIEW
REVIEW
Here’s a better challenge. This is
a lateral view of a cockroach
head with the mouthparts
extruded. Which of the following
can you recognize?
Can you recognize the following?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
This completes our review of basic insect
mouthparts as found in the American cockroach
(Periplaneta americana). Make sure that you
understand this basic plan before proceeding.
antennae
clypeus
eye
frons
labial palpi
labrum
mandible
maxillary palpi
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
8
antenna
eye
The rest of this module on mouthparts shows how
various insect groups have used the basic
mandibulate ground plan to produce highly
modified mouthparts exquisitely adapted to their
own way of obtaining food.
antennal base
clypeus
eye
galea
hypopharynx
labial palp
labium
labrum
mandible
maxillary palp
labrum
labellum
Black flies (Simuliidae) are small insects
but their mouthparts are relatively large. All
of the parts are present in adults but they
are greatly modified from the basic plan.
The labellum is used for nectar feeding but
the labrum, lacinia, and mandibles are
modified as piercing structures for blood
feeding. The relatively large wound and the
antigenic properties of the salivary proteins
lead to ugly skin reactions.
maxillary palp
10
9
Dipteran mouthpart modifications
Mosquitoes have carried the business of piercing
and sucking to a fine art. The stylets are modified
labrum, maxillae, hypopharynx and mandibles, just
as in horse flies and black flies, but the cross section
size is markedly reduced making for a much
stealthier approach to feeding.
labellum
horse fly adult dissected mouthparts
(ex. micro-slide)
labrum
lacinia
mandible
maxillary
palp
antennae
mandibles
lacinia
laciniae
hypopharynx
pharyngeal
pump
e
maxillary
labrum palpi
hypopharynx mandible
Horse flies (Tabanidae) have the same kinds of mouthpart modifications as
black flies, but since they are larger, are easier for us to study (their bite
also causes more physical damage). All of the basic parts can be seen
here and don’t resemble the mouthparts of the cockroach. Nevertheless
these are the appendages of the same segments - the result of the same
12
basic developmental plan.
Dipteran mouthpart modifications
Dipteran mouthpart modifications
Dipteran mouthpart modifications
maxillary
palp
11
tentorium
salivary
duct
labium
Only female
mosquitoes take
blood. Males do
not possess the
necessary m.pts.
The mosquito
shown has all
m.pts hence is a
female. Both
sexes suck nectar,
and possess the
large labellum.
13
rostrum
labrum
maxillary
palpi
Hypopharynx
haustellum
x.s.
labellum
( not seen in X.S.)
Mosquito head and mouthparts frontal view
Maxillary stylets- green
Labral stylet - blue
Mandibular stylets - yellow
Food canal - red
Salivary canal - pink
Hypopharynx - black
Labium - tan
14
The higher flies (house flies and
relatives) have lost the mandibles and
maxillae, except for the maxillary palpi.
They specialize in modifications of the
labial appendages only to produce
sophisticated lapping, probing, scraping
and piercing mouthparts. Most of them
cannot pierce host skin but some, like
the tsetse fly (later slide) can.
labellum
pseudotracheae
The fly labellum is a complex
sensory organ and feeding
structure looking something like
a sock. It’s dexterous being
controlled by numerous small
muscles.
15
Dipteran mouthpart modifications
Dipteran mouthpart modifications
Lepidopteran mouthpart modifications
antenna
haustellum
labellum
antenna
cardo
This SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscope) micrograph of a flesh
fly labellum shows the sensory
hairs that cover the surface of the
oral surface of the lobes. These
sensory hairs taste sugars, salts,
amino acids, water and other
chemicals as well as conferring a
delicate sense of touch on the
whole organ.
antenna
maxillary
palpi
labellum
food maxillary
canal palp
haustellum
Tsetse flies have carried labellar
modification to an extreme
unmatched by any other insect.
The fine labellum with its tooth
bearing tip makes a needle-like
penetration of the host skin.
labellum {
pilifer
labial
palp
galea
labrum
galea
labial
palp
In moths and butterflies the sucking mouthpart is largely the modified
maxillary galeae. The area along the food canal is lined with taste pegs.
The maxillary palpi are much reduced and mandibles are absent.
galeae
18
17
16
Hemipteran mouthpart modifications
maxillary
palp
dilating muscles
maxilla
labial
palp
flabellum
20
mandible labium
In the next section, we look in detail at some sensory
structures and comment briefly on their function. The study
of sense organs has major implications for pheromone
biology, insect-plant interactions and the chemical
modification of feeding by the use of antifeedants.
mandible maxilla
Insects with incomplete metamorphosis also
use highly modified mouthparts as shown in the
true bugs and their relatives. These are used for
piercing and sucking and are similar in some
ways to the modifications seen in mosquitoes.
The large dilating muscles of the sucking pump
are the largest muscles in the bug head.
salivary
duct
hypopharynx
22
1
3
24
2
4
labial
palp
mandible
maxillary
palp
If you have been studying this module carefully, you will likely
be able to quickly make sense of this ventral view of the head
and mouthparts of a leaf beetle (Chrysomelidae). Leaf beetles
chew leaves hence have strong mandibles. The palpi are well
developed for sensory purposes as are parts of the labrum and
the galea.
21
These two examples of taste
hairs were taken from leaf
beetle galea. The pore in the
tip is where the leaf juice
enters in order to be tasted.
The sensillum with the little
fingers in the right hand
picture does not have much
of a pore and is probably
used to sense temperature
and humidity.
Galeae of leaf beetles have specialized taste hairs with rounded
tips (red arrowheads). These are used to taste leaves before a
decision is made to take a meal. Leaves of poor host plants don’t
taste right to the beetle so small meals are taken. Leaves of host
plants are assessed quickly and extended feeding occurs.
19
maxillary
palp
This concludes our survey of mouthpart modifications. In
several places we mentioned that sensory structures were
present on certain mouthparts, such as palp tips. In fact,
one of the greatest concentrations of chemosensilla is
found on the mouthparts - the other major site being the
antennae.
mandible
glossae
stipes
epipharynx
labrum
The sawflies, bees and wasps have
various arrangements of mouthparts,
the most complex being those of bees
(photo at right). Like lepidopterans,
bees use a tube to suck nectar but
they are modified glossae (part of the
labium). Mandibles are retained
primarily for handling wax - in fact, the
structure of the mandibles gives rise to
the precise hexagonal arrangement of
the cells in the honeycomb.
The real thing looks different from
the previous drawing of course. For
one thing, moths and butterflies are
covered with scales (modified
cuticular hairs), as seen in this
cleared lepidopteran head. The
large labial palpi are sensory, in
fact, in some specialized nocturnal
moths the organs of hearing are
also on the palpi. The galeae are
separated in this preparation.
During feeding, they are held close
together to form a sucking tube.
eye
eye
maxillary
palp
Hymenopteran mouthpart modifications
antenna
ocellus
eye
haustellum
anterior
Lepidopteran mouthpart modifications
Inside the large taste hairs we find the
sensory cells, as this electron
microscope cross section through the
base of the larger sensillum at top right
shows. The four numbered cells are
chemosensory while the one marked
with a yellow arrowhead is
mechanosensory. Most taste hairs in
insects can also sense movement.
25
23
This series of increasing
magnifications are taken
from the inside of the
labrum (epipharynx) of a
leaf beetle. The epipharynx
forms the anterior surface
of the buccal cavity (roof of
the mouth so to speak) and
it also bears taste-sensitive
structures. These sensilla
are not hair-like but take
the shape of short pegs-inpits. They too have pores.
26
The most obvious of the mouthpart sensory structures are
the palpi (maxillary and labial). In leaf beetles, the palp tips
provide four surfaces that are covered with small sensory
pegs - some for taste and some for smell.
27
The Insect Thorax and Abdomen
neck region
In the simplest terms, the thorax is the locomotory centre of the insect
since all six legs and the wings are found there. The largest muscles
are also found in the thorax. The thorax is a box-like structure with
extensive internal cuticular cross bracing. It also sports numerous
cuticular plates (sclerites) that are intimately involved in locomotion.
To conserve mass, some of the thoracic muscles are involved in both
walking and flying. This works because these are mutually exclusive
behaviours and the motor nervous system plays the appropriate motor
program at the appropriate time. The abdomen is simple in its anterior
region getting quite complex in the last three segments where the
sclerites of the external reproductive system are found. Both male and
female insects have extensive cuticular modifications for reproduction,
females particularly for oviposition (egg laying) and males for sperm
insertion. Many insects can be identified at the species level only by
looking carefully at the male genitalia.
Supported in part by
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and Faculty of Science, University of Alberta
©
pronotum
prothoracic
sternum
mesopleuron
mesothoracic
pleuron
mesosternum
spinasternum
mesothoracic
trochanter
membranous
cuticle
metathoracic
coxa
coxal
cavity
part of cuticular
cross bracing
3
flight muscle
seg ix
haemocoel
male (
)
femur
anal style
Insect legs have numerous
adaptations that depend on
the insect’s lifestyle. Here are
two examples. At top, a leg
from an aquatic bug (note the
numerous fine hairs that
spread for swimming). It is
also used to name the basic
leg parts. At bottom, raptorial
forelegs from a mantispid
used for seizing prey then
clamping it during feeding.
tibia
tarsus
subalar
muscles to alary sclerites
seg vii
subalar muscle
(wing supination)
anal cercus
suranal
plate
leg muscle
trochanter muscle
coxa
2
1
dorsoventral
flight muscle
basalar muscle
(wing pronation)
metathorax
metapleuron
metasternum
B.K.Mitchell and J.S.Scott
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Alberta
tergum
prothoracic
pleuron
mesothorax
coxal
cavity
mesothoracic
femur
tergum
Mesothorax of spruce budworm moth - lateral view
basalar
Grasshoppers are much stronger
flyers than cockroaches and this
is clearly reflected in the structure
of the thorax. Note the greater
fusion of the ventral thoracic
sclerites to form a strong
pterothoracic “box” to support
flight.
Meso- and Metathoracic Segments of
Periplaneta - ventral view
Ventral View of Periplaneta Thorax
trochanter
4
gut
The wing must move with great
dexterity if the insect is to fly properly.
The axillary sclerites (red arrows)
provide a major part of this complex
attachment and the muscles that
insert on them are responsible for
small but crucial movements of the
wing in flight. This sclerite/muscle
system is also involved in wing
folding.
ventral nerve cord
Cross section through the thorax of a cockroach showing some major
internal structures. Note the size of the muscles and that some are cut in
longitudinal section while others are cut in cross section.
5
In addition to behaviour, the structure of the last few abdominal segments
plays a major role in species recognition. Here two craneflies are locked in
copula. Specialized sclerites of the last three abdominal sclerites (terminalia)
allow only members of the same species to proceed this far.
12
haltere
9
Mating behaviour in
insects is often a
complex business
that is a critical part of
the species isolating
mechanism. Thus,
intricate behaviours
correctly performed
signal species
identity.
Respiration in insects is mediated by a complex, multi-branched tracheal
system. The tracheal tubes (tracheae) are epidermal in origin and so are
lined with thin cuticle. They communicate with the outside via segmental
openings called spiracles found on the thorax and abdomen. When
present, there are two spiracles per segment. Not all segments have
spiracles, for example, compare the spiracles in an adult cockroach and
an adult fly. These photos show examples of spiracles and associated
tracheae. The spiracle on the right has a filter system to prevent entry of
dust. Many spiracles have complex opening/closing mechanisms.
6
13
7
Wing veins provide support for the thin, delicate membranous cuticle
that make up the rest of the wing, as shown here by these two wings
from a horse fly. Many veins also house tracheae and provide a
passage for haemolymph (blood). Numerous sense organs are found on
the wings, especially wind sensitive hairs, and the cells in these organs
must respire and receive nutrients. Accessory hearts at the base of the
wing provide a sometimes complex flow of haemolymph in the veins.
Wing veins can also be important taxonomic characters at the Family
level.
Diptera (true flies), as you can see from the name, have two wings
instead of four. In flies, the hind wings take the form of dumbell shaped
structures that act as balancing organs during flight. These highly
modified and specialized hind wings are called halteres
In the honeybee (not shown), the hind wing has little hooks that look very
much like the hooks in a Velcro strip and the fore wing has a corresponding
surface for attachment.
8
)
As with most insects, the cockroach abdomen is composed of a series of
similar segments until the terminal end where sex complicates things.
Mating behaviour, pheromone production, egg production and release are
all handled largely by the abdomen and particularly by modifications of these
last abdominal segments. The male and female cockroach abdominal tips
shown here clearly reveal some obvious differences.
Most insects have four wings
which either beat quite
independently as in
dragonflies or with varying
degrees of unity. The front
and hind wings of moths are
strongly linked together and
the hind wing has a strong
structure called the frenulum
(red arrow) that is part of the
linking apparatus. It hooks
into a process on the front
wing called a jugum (in
jugate moths in any case).
The Wing Base
female (
trochanter
coxa
10
11
male
abdomen
In the Odonata the male actually grabs the female by the prothorax
(damselfly) or top of the head (dragonfly) during mating. As they fly or
perch, the female reaches around with her abdomen and takes sperm
from a specialized holding pouch near the junction of the male thorax
and abdomen. These are damselflies.
14
Insects often have rather
astonishing reproductive
structures, especially the
male intromittent organ or
aedeagus. In this flour
beetle the aedeagus is
withdrawn into the abdomen
when not in use.
testis
accessory
gland
aedeagus
Continued on next poster 15
In these views of actual specimens
you can identify some of the
cuticular parts shown in the
drawing of the generalized female
abdomen. This specimen is a
leafhopper.
tergite8
tergite10
stylus
tergite9
gonangulum
poison
sac
tergite9
sheath
2 coxopodium
bulb
2 gonapophysis
gland
1 gonapophysis
1
coxopodium
2 coxopodium
Parasitic wasps take the business
of ovipositor modification to an
extreme but all of the basic parts
are there. 50% of all wasps are
parasitic on other insects and
need to lay their eggs with great
precision since many are quite
host specific.
2 gonapophysis
1 gonapophysis
gonangulum
This drawing shows, in generalized form, the way female abdominal
segments 8, 9 and 10 are modified for egg laying. Along with mating,
egg laying requires extensive modification of sclerites.
16
o cranefly
vor
tex
Male and female abdomens are also
variously modified, mostly for, in the
case of the male, holding the female
in position during copulation and in
the female accepting the male during
copulation and also for oviposition
(egg laying).
o waterbug
exocuticle
(hard)
exocuticle
mesocuticle
endocuticle
tonofibrillae
cuticle
muscles
As the functional skeleton of arthropods,
the cuticle is the primary place for muscle
attachment. This section shows how
intimate is the connection between
muscle and cuticle. Muscle extensions
called tonofibrillae make the actual link.
At moulting, these connections must
remain functional until the last moment
when new connections are established
with the new cuticle developing beneath
the old.
24
epicuticle
endocuticle
Requirements of internal
organs also influence the
shape of the abdomen. The
midgut of this mosquito is so
full of blood that the abdomen
is swollen to near maximum
size (cuticle does not stretch).
A large egg load can also
swell the abdomen like this.
The entire abdomen can also serve important functions in arthropods. The
tail flick that is part of the escape response of the crayfish is perhaps the
best known (it’s part of the reason that lobster tails are such good eating).
Here is another use of the whole abdomen displayed by black fly larvae.
They twist their abdomen 180 degrees so that their feeding fans can be
properly oriented in the mainstream water flow.
This is a section of bending cuticle.
As you can see, it is not exactly
like the previous drawing. Not all
cuticle looks alike. Some is very
thick, others thin. Some cuticle has
well developed mesocuticle, as
shown here. The blue endocuticle
is elastic, so this cuticle is highly
bendable.
dermal gland duct
epicuticle
(soft)
rate
21
20
19
trichoid sensillum
laminar sublayer
subst
sting
18
Many aquatic insects use
special adaptations of the
last abdominal segments for
orienting in the stream or for
breathing. Notice how this
mayfly nymph uses its
caudal filaments for
orientation.
boundary layer
o snakefly
Flies, such as this housefly, have a different version of the ovipositor.
The last few abdominal segments telescope into the larger anterior
abdominal segments except when the fly is laying eggs. Then these
segments are extended as shown here.
17
mainstream flow
In bees, the ovipositor function
is subsumed by the sting which
is served by a poison gland.
Oviposition is through a simple
opening.
exocuticle
endocuticle
bending cuticle
The spectacular picture of a wing base of a moth, shows a top view of
bending cuticle. The yellow ovals are the cones of mesocuticle protruding
down into the blue endocuticle, so this particular sclerite is very flexible.
The large areas of yellow cuticle are exocuticle and are relatively hard.
25
exocuticle
epidermis
trichogen
cell
22
basement epidermal oenocyte dermal gland
membrane
cell
The head, thorax and abdomen are covered with cuticle as are the foregut,
hindgut and tracheal system. These are the basic components of insect
cuticle that you should be familiar with. The epicuticle provides a continuous
wax covering to prevent desiccation. The exocuticle is a mix of chitin (like
cellulose) and tanned protein. You can see why it won’t stretch. The
23
endocuticle, including mesocuticle is flexible and elastic.
Cockroach Dissection
DISSECTION
DISSECTION OF
OF COCKROACH
COCKROACH -- MOUTHPARTS
MOUTHPARTS
clypeus
mandibles
(6)
(5)
labrum (1)
While it is impossible to chose an insect species that truly represents
the morphology of all, the cockroach has gained a commanding
position as the insect of choice for illustrating the ‘basic’ insect body
plan. Another strong contender for this role is the grasshopper. Even
terms like ‘the cockroach’ and ‘the grasshopper’ are terribly
misleading, since there are many species of each with sometimes
marked differences in various structures. Nevertheless, cockroaches
and grasshoppers are good representatives of insects with chewing
mandibles and lacking extreme morphological specializations of the
major body parts.
Here we address the major external and internal parts of the
American cockroach, Periplaneta americana. Some of the terms will
be new but many will be strikingly familiar for they are named after
their, sometimes very approximate, counterparts in vertebrates.
Supported in part by
Academic Technologies for Learning
and Faculty of Science, University of Alberta
©
labrum
labium
(4)
hypopharynx (2)
labium
labial palpi
maxillary
palp
frontal view
of entire head
showing position
of mouthparts
mandibles (5)
maxilla (3)
frontal view
of entire head,
stained and cleared to
show underlying
mouthparts
DISSECTION OF COCKROACH - RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
DISSECTION OF COCKROACH - GENERAL
compound
eye
hypopharynx
(2)
labrum (1)
(1) - (6) order of removal from head
DISSECTION OF COCKROACH - ALIMENTARY SYSTEM
antenna
Abdomen of male cockroach.
Wings and abdominal tergites
removed exposing fat body,
tracheae, dorsal vessel
and underlying alimentary organs.
dorsal
vessel
front wing
maxillae (3)
mandibles
hypopharynx
DISSECTION OF COCKROACH - GENERAL
Recently killed male cockroach,
with legs removed and partially
imbedded (dorsal side up) in
black composite wax, in a
dissecting tray. Distilled water or
Ringer’s solution is added to the
dish before the dissection begins.
crop
oesophagus
crop
tracheae
tracheae
testis lies
within this
fat body
stomach
proventriculus
testis
dorsal
vessel
cercus
tracheae
antenna
tracheal supply around stomach
fat body
DISSECTION OF COCKROACH - NERVOUS SYSTEM
aperture
spiracle
operculum
insect pin
placed through
spiracle opening into
connecting trachea
}
tracheae
cockroach mounted
in black composite wax
DISSECTION OF COCKROACH - O REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
DISSECTION OF COCKROACH - O REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
ovarioles
HEAD
HEAD
testis
testis
suboesophageal
ganglion
mesothoracic
ganglion
THORAX
vas deferens
interganglionic
connective
interganglionic
connective
fat
seminal vesicle
ovarioles separated
from cellular sheath
abdominal
ganglion
fat body
interganglionic
connective
ABDOMEN
metathoracic
ganglion
cellular
sheath
surrounding
ovarioles
colleterial
gland
terminal
egg
cercus
cercus
abdominal
muscles
cercus
styli
enteric caeca
midgut
fat body
abdomen
labium (4)
maxillae
B.K.Mitchell and J.S.Scott
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Alberta
pronotum
DISSECTION
DISSECTION OF
OF COCKROACH
COCKROACH -- MOUTHPARTS
MOUTHPARTS
O external features
O external features
ileum
vas
deferens
Malpighian
tubules
colon
rectum