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Europe in Transition Economic growth was the basis for the Renaissance Northern Italy (centrally located) benefited from the crusades and the spice trade Renaissance started in Florence and follows the success of the Medici family Florentine merchants gained control of the papal banking 1397 Giovanni de’Medici founded the Medici Bank Even marriage vows were business arrangements The popolo (poor class) hated their position and used force to take over the cities The popolo could not retain power and were later replaced by despots or oligarchies Northern Italian cities were communes Despots showed their wealth by patronizing the arts Medici Individual had a loyalty to their own city-state Five city-states dominated the peninsula: Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal State, and the kingdom of Naples Cesare Borgia (Machiavelli’s hero and son of Pope Alexander VI) tried to unite the peninsula Northern Europe was uniting - Italy remained fragmented Signing and breaking alliances was common Renaissance was characterized by self-conscious awareness that Italians were living in a new era One of the founders of this movement was Petrarch The Renaissance was the light after the gloom of the Dark Ages The Roman Empire was the peak of human civilization Artists of the Renaissance had contempt for medieval predecessors But most people lived exactly the same in the Renaissance period as the medieval period A new individualism appeared A deep interest in Latin, a revival of the antique lifestyle, and a more secular spirit. Humanism The study of the classics became known as “new learning” or “humanism” Cicero considered this important for anyone who considered himself civilized Humanism emphasized: a) human beings b) human achievements c) human capabilities Italian humanism became more of an interest to lay people Italian Humanists i) Deeply religious viewed the classics in a new light ii) Skeptical of the authority of the classics because of distance from the author iii) Studied classics to understand human nature iv) Very Christian - men and women were in God’s image v) Rejected classical ideas that opposed Christianity but sought a harmony between paganism, secularism, and Christianity. vi) Loved the language of the classics Secularism Concerned with the material world not the eternal world Lorenzo Valla On Pleasure defended pleasure also wrote On the False Donation of Constantine which weakened the pope’s authority. Boccaccio Decameron about a worldly society. Papal interests actually encouraged worldliness NORTHERN RENAISSANCE Politics and the State More of a blend of old and new Much more religious than in Italy Studied Greek and Hebrew texts for a greater understanding of Christianity Students from England, Holland, France, and Germany went to Italy for the ‘new learning’ Northern humanists interpreted Italian ideas in terms of their own traditions. a) They were more religious b) They stressed the Bible and early Christian themes c) They developed an ethical way of life d) Classical and Christian cultures should be combined e) They had a profound faith in the human intellect f) People could be improved through education Northern Humanists • In Germany: • Western and southern Germany were economically advanced • 14th century - mystics like Thomas a Kempis believed the human soul could communicate with God • They did not rebel against the Church but wanted a deeper religion In England: • Thomas More was trained as a lawyer • Deeply interested in the classics • Entered government under Henry VIII • Wrote Utopia where all children receive a humanist education • More believed private property caused vices and civil disorder • Beheaded by Henry VIII for refusing to acknowledge the supremacy of Henry in the Church of England Low Countries: • • • • • • • • • Erasmus had a deep appreciation for the classics Most well-respected man in Europe Influenced by John Colet in England Wrote The Education of a Christian Prince and The Praise of Folly Criticized the abuses of the Catholic Church but advocate reform not separation Initially very supportive of Luther but soon distanced himself from the Reformation Two main themes: 1) Education is the means to reform 2) ‘The philosophy of Christ’ Christianity is an inner feeling ‘new monarchs’ • A new breed of leaders - preferred security to love • They used the monarchy to guarantee law and order • The despots of Italy, Henry VII of England, Louis XI of France, Ferdinand of Aragon • All Machiavellian (but could not have read The Prince) 1) invested kingship with strong authority and national purpose 2) Monarchy linked all classes of society within a boundary 3) Insisted on respect and loyalty 4) Ruthless oppressed rebellions and opposition 5) Loved the business of kingship 6) Tended to rely on the middle-class - new bourgeoisie FRANCE Charles VII revived the monarchy i) expelled the English ii) increased the influence of the middle class iii) strengthened finances through taxes like salt (gabelle) and land (taille) iv) created first permanent royal army v) by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438) asserted French Church supremacy over the papacy vi) crown could appoint bishops • His son, Louis XI (Valois) was a Renaissance prince • Promoted industry improved the army signed international treaties • The Estates General met only once during his reign • 1516 Francis I signed the Concordat of Bologna which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction - king could appoint bishops (keeping France Catholic) ENGLAND • • • • Decimated by the Black Death The Tudors (1485-1603) won War of the Roses They passed laws against nobles having standing armies The monarch did not depend on government for money so much more independent • Royal Council (Star Chamber) was the center of authority The Royal Council handled the king’s business including arranging marriages. Aristocratic threats were dealt with by the Star Chamber Star Chamber used Roman Law and methods to enforce the law a) accused people were not entitled to see the evidence against them b) sessions were in secret c) torture was often used d) there were no juries The Tudors promoted peace and order Henry VII (1485) rebuilt the monarchy Ruled through unpaid officials a) he encouraged trade b) built up the merchant fleet c) crushed an invasion from Ireland d) secured peace with Scotland (his daughter Margaret married the Scottish king) SPAIN Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married (1469) and united the regions They ruled through ‘hermandades’ Restructured the royal council - excluded the rich and powerful The church was the linchpin of the reform. Alliance with the Spanish pope Alexander VI Spanish monarchs gained great power and a national church reconquista (1492) - expulsion of the Jews and Moors from Spain lasted over 100 years Conversos- Jews that converted Moriscos - Christians of Moorish background Marranos - Christians of Jewish background inquisition - the ruthless court that decided if conversos were telling the truth later used against the Protestants Ferdinand and Isabella expelling all Jews from Spain had major economic consequences Absolute religious orthodoxy and pure blood were the foundation of Spain Ferdinand and Isabella’s daughter Joanna married Philip. Their son was Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V - the ‘Universal Monarch’ Germany • Part of the Holy Roman Empire • Local lords recognized the supremacy of the Emperor, who was elected by 7 Electors • 1452 Archduke of Austria (Habsburg) was elected Emperor Maximilian I (1493-1519) • He married the heiress of the Duke of Burgundy • Their son, Philip married Mad Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella • Their son was Charles V Politics The Prince - Machiavelli For Machiavelli the test was a ‘good’ government was an effective government. Machiavelli’s work rests on two principles: 1) Permanent social order reflecting God’s will is impossible 2) Politics should be considered a science. • Johann Gutenberg changed the course of history with the movable print. Printing made propaganda possible and forced people into groups i.e. church and state or Crown and nobility. • Printing stimulated literacy of lay people. Women The status of upper-class women declined women generally had less power than in the Middle Ages Renaissance humanism represented an educational advance for a small minority. Women had to choose marriage or education Education brought jealousy and envy Girls in the upper-class were taught how to dance, paint, and play music - they were decorative Women belonged at home Educational opportunities were severely limited Literary and art works had no effect on ordinary women Women were a sign of wealth. The Italian and Christian humanists denounced the corruption of the Church a) clerical immorality b) clerical ignorance c) clerical pluralism At the village level priests were not much better off than peasants Government officials were often rewarded with clerical positions Many priest had concubines, drunkenness, gambling, and elaborate dress were common Many priests could barely read or write Christian humanists condemned the ignorance of the Church The Church held a large portion of European wealth Popes were just as corrupt: Innocent VIII made the papal court the gossip of Europe Alexander VI publicly acknowledged his mistress and children Julius II led an army against France Europe was still deeply religious and many groups i.e. “The Brethern of Common Life” wanted reform The Lateran Council did recommend changes - but there were many obstacles Martin Luther would force the issue • Born in East Germany from peasant stock • Almost hit by lightning became religious • Entered the strict Augustinian monastery against his father’s wishes • Disillusioned with the Church questioned good works: prayers, fasting, etc. • The Tower Experience read Apostle Paul’s letter to the Romans • “The just shall live by his faith” if people had faith God will save them • Archbishop Albert of Magdeburg hired John Tetzel to oversee the collection of funds • Luther openly criticized the abuses of Indulgences • October 31, 1517, he posted his 95 theses on the Castle Church in Wittenberg • Spread without Luther’s knowledge. • Reasons for success: a) Germany resented papal power b) Distance from Rome c) Lack of central authority to mediate the dispute • Pope Leo X did not take the threat seriously he thought Luther would disappear • The Augustinians championed reform and supported Luther, the Dominican attacked Luther’s views. • Church opinion was espoused by Tetzel • Diet of Augsburg demanded that Luther recant. • Luther refused and even criticized the pope • The church wanted to banish Luther but he was protected by Frederick the Wise • Under increasing pressure Luther’s views became more critical • Luther: a) defended the radical martyr Hus b) Proclaimed the Bible was the supreme authority c) Appealed to the German nobles to stop the abuses of the church d) Recognized good work but emphasized faith • The pope gave Luther 60 days to recant Luther burned the papal bull • Luther appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor to hear the argument at the Diet of Worms • Luther refused to modify his views and said “Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise” • Luther was abducted an placed in Wartburg Castle for his own protection • Philip Melanchthon implemented Luther’s ideas • Luther was not a revolutionary • Knew the Church would not change • Concerned with issues of the soul • Equality of all people before God Luther believed: • salvation comes by faith alone • religious authority resides in the Bible and is open to interpretation • the church is a community of believers • all vocations are equal in the eyes of God • there are only 2 sacraments: baptism and the Lord’s Supper • the importance of marriage • a women’s place was in the home Luther gained wide support among the peasants but they misunderstood him Business people envied the church and disapproved of the clergy’s lifestyle But Luther meant independence from the Roman Catholic Church not simply freedom Still religion was a public matter Very few believed in religious liberty Humanists validated Luther’s words While Luther’s translation of the Bible into German made it an issue of nationalism • In the Habsburg-Valois War, Catholic France supported Protestant Germany against Catholic Spain • The Peace of Augsburg (1555) officially recognized Lutheranism and each prince could decide the religion of his territory • cuius regio eius religio • Northern Germany -Protestant Southern Germany - Catholic • The Protestant movement proved a disaster for Germany Calvinism • John Calvin was the person most responsible for the spread of Protestantism • About 20 years younger than Luther • Started in Geneva – a theocracy • Absolute rule by Calvin and the Consistory • Institutes of Christian Religion • Did not believe in free will • Predestination • The Calling – Protestant work ethic • Michael Servetus burnt at the stake • Spread to Scotland, France, England and America ENGLISH REFORMATION The King’s Great Matter • English humanists had been wanting reform • 1509 Henry VIII became the king aged 18 • Henry was strongly Catholic and had been trained as a priest • The pope gave him the title Defender of the Faith • Luther called him a “lubberly ass” • Was given special permission from Pope Julius II to marry Catherine of Aragon • Catherine had been his brother’s wife Catherine of Aragon • Daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella • Catholic • She had five daughters, only Mary survived • Henry asked Pope Clement VII to grant a divorce • Charles V was Catherine’s nephew 1. Leviticus – divorce not an option 2. Charles V was in Rome 3. Lutheranism 4. Papal infallibility • The “matter” took six years • Denied an annulment of marriage • Henry issued The Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533), which made the king supreme head of England • The Act of Submission of the Clergy (1534), clergy must submit to the monarch • The Supremacy Act, (1534) made the king head of the Church of England • Separated Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church • Thomas More and John Fisher refused and were beheaded • Catherine still remained loyal to him and the Catholic faith • The king could now remarry Anne Boleyn • • • • • • Maid of honor to Catherine 2nd wife and most famous wife Bore him a daughter Elizabeth I In 1536, charged Anne of adultery Beheaded on May 19, 1536 • Henry dissolved the monasteries and kept the wealth • Sold the land to his friends • The Pilgrimage of Grace proved the whole country was not willing to change Edward VI • • • • • Only son of Henry His mother died of child bed fever Became king at nine Had been tutored by Protestants Died from several sicknesses in 1553 Mary Tudor • • • • • Became queen after Edward died Devoted Catholic Nicknamed “Bloody Mary” Married her cousin Philip II of Spain Very unpopular Elizabeth of York • • • • Became queen of England in 1558 Protestant, but tolerant “Elizabethan Settlement” required conformity Thirty Nine Articles became the basis of the Anglican Church SCOTLAND • Did not follow the English model • Mary Queen of Scots allied with the French • Scottish nobles supported the Protestants and John Knox • Knox persuaded Parliament to end papal supremacy in Scotland • Established the Presbyterian Church of Scotland The Catholic Reformation • • • • • • • • Also, known as the Counter-Reformation Began in 1517 in response to calls for reform Didn’t really have an affect until the 1540s Catholic Church wanted to persuade dissidents to return to the church The Lateran Council (1512) had told Julius II to reform the church Adrian VI wanted reform but he was Dutch Popes resisted reform because they feared a loss of power and revenue Pope Paul III Council of Trent in 1545 • The council met sporadically until 1563 • Decided: a) 7 sacraments b) Bishops had to reside in their dioceses c) Suppressed pluralism and simony d) Churches had to establish seminaries e) The Index of Prohibited Books • Great emphasis was placed on discipline • The Council did not meet expectations but it did correct the church • New religious orders appeared, such as the Jesuits and the Ursuline nuns • These orders emphasized strict Catholic dogma to lift up the spiritual condition of the clergy and laity • The Jesuits (The Society of Jesus) was founded by Ignatius Loyola and emphasized education • The Ursuline order was only for women