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Career Counseling:
A Holistic Approach
CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
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Vocational Counseling’s initial focus was primarily
on the use of assessment techniques for job
placement
The focus later expanded to include a broader
range of factors – different theories emphasize
different factors
A theory is a set of concepts, propositions & ideas
that provide insights into what is believed to be
true or most important
- theories are the foundation for research
- theories provide guidelines for procedures &
interventions (not a step-by-step how to do)
©2016. CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Trait-Oriented Theories
1) Trait & Factor Theory
2) Person-Environment Correspondence
(PEC) Counseling or the Theory of Work
Adjustment
3) Holland’s Model
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Trait-and-Factor Theory
Among the earliest & most durable theories
Vocational guidance is accomplished by
studying the individual, then surveying
occupations, then matching the individual
with the occupation (Parsons)
Foundation of early 20th century programs
Associated with dev. of asmnt instmnts,
refinement of occup info, correl. between
aptitudes & job success, occup interests &
the importance of individual values
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Criticisms
- over use of test results
- the idea that there is a single career goal for everyone
◦ Prediger suggested a similarity model – tests are not designed to predict
success or find the “ideal” career, but to provide a means of evaluating
occupations that “are similar to you in important ways”
- too narrow in scope – other factors need to be considered in the
career development process (eg. Happenstance or chance
occurrences)
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Person-EnvironmentCorrespondence (PEC) Counseling
Also called the Theory of Work Adjustment
Broader level of Person-EnvironmentCorrespondence was added in 1991
PEC theory emphasizes that work is more
than a task-oriented procedure, and that it
includes human interactions; sources of
stress and rewards and many other
psychological variables
©2016. CENGAGE LEARNING. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
PEC emphasizes that individuals seek to achieve & maintain a positive
relationship with their work environments
Both the person & work environment has “expectations” or
requirements - to survive, the individual & work environment must
achieve some degree of congruence (correspondence)
Individual needs are most important (see p 24); these needs are
matched with occupational reinforcers, such as achievement,
advancement, authority, coworkers, activity, security, social service,
social status & variety
Implications for counselors – p. 25
Environmental structure – the characteristic abilities & values of
individuals who already inhabit the work environment - matching
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Work adjustment – ideal when person & envt have matching work
needs & work skills; changes in either can lead to worker dissatisfaction.
Workers attempts to improve fit within the work envt can be viewed as
actions designed to achieve work adjustment
- active – when the worker attempts to change the work envt
- reactive – when the worker attempts to correspond better with the
work envt
Because of changing work conditions, counselors can expect to find
more clients with work adjustment probs (work adjustment counseling)
Practical Applications – p. 27
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Holland’s Model (p. 28, 29)
Proposed that personality types can be
arranged in a coded system
His modal-personal-orientation themes
such as R (realistic occupation),
I(investigative), A(artistic), S(social),
E(enterprising), and C(conventional)
comprise his main theory
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Key Concepts
Consistency – the closer the types are on the hexagon, the more
consistent the individual will be (relates to personality & envt) – based
on the idea that some personality & environmental types share some
common elements
Differentiation – individuals who fit a pure personality type will express
little resemblance to other types; those who fit several personality
types are more undifferentiated
Identity – for individuals, those who have a clear & stable picture of
their goals, interests, & talents have high identity; for environments,
identity is the degree to which a workplace has clarity, stability, and
integration of goals, tasks & rewards
Congruence – when an individual’s personality type matches the
environment; highly related to academic performance & persistence,
job satisfaction & stability of choice
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