Download domestic history 1945-present - School District of Black River Falls

AP AMERICAN HISTORY
HAVING A BLAST WITH
DOMESTIC HISTORY
1945-PRESENT
Fun With Early American History was certainly fun. But, listen to what the
critics have to say about Having a Blast . . .
“Good reading.”
--- Calvin Coolidge
“This is prime reading, man. Rykken has done it again. The section on youth culture in the
50s really rocks.”
-- Karl Wallin
“I read it, I reread it, and I reread it again. And inserting those essay questions – talk about
innovation! I’m surprised this thing didn’t make the New York Times bestseller list!”
-- Chuck Norris
“Cool, very cool.”
-- Thelonius Monk
“I’m not kidding when I say this – in my modern American history class at West Point, one
of my instructors regularly made references to this document. It is good to know that the
officer corps of the U.S. Army will have this information in their repertoire.”
-- Jake Rykken
“Outstanding, Outstanding, Outstanding! I wish I would have been around for this
history!”
-- Franklin D. Roosevelt
DOMESTIC POLITICS: 1945-PRESENT PERIOD
CORRESPONDING TEXT BOOK REFERENCES FROM KCB
CHAPTER 37: 858-867, 879-883 (REVIEW FOR CONTEXT)
CHAPTER 38: 887-899, 905-915
CHAPTER 39: 923-934
CHAPTER 40: 951-957, 959-962, 963-970
THE “BIG PICTURE” OF AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES SINCE 1945
The Fifth Party System, also called the New Deal Party System, refers to the era of United States
national politics that began with the New Deal in 1933. It followed the Fourth Party System, usually
called the Progressive Era. Experts debate whether it ended in the mid-1960s, the mid-1990's or
continues to the present. The System was heavily Democratic through 1964 and mostly Republican at
the presidential level since 1952, with the Senate swinging slowly back and forth after 1980, and both
Houses going Republican in 1994, and Democratic in 2006. Of the nineteen Presidentiads since 1932,
the Democrats have held ten; they held the first five, and Republican presidencies have been more
common since 1952.
With Republican promises of prosperity discredited by the Great Depression, the four consecutive
elections, 1932-36-40-44 of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt gave the Democrats dominance, though
in domestic issues the Conservative coalition generally controlled Congress from 1938 to 1964. The
activist New Deal promoted American liberalism, anchored in a New Deal Coalition of specific liberal
groups, especially ethno-religious minorities (Catholics, Jews, African Americans), white Southerners,
well-organized labor unions, big city machines, intellectuals, and liberal farm groups. Opposition
Republicans were split between a conservative wing, led by Senator Robert A. Taft, and a more
successful moderate wing led by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.
The period climaxed with Lyndon B. Johnson's smashing electoral defeat of conservative Republican
presidential candidate Barry Goldwater in 1964; in no other election since 1944 has the Democratic
party received more than 50.1% of the Presidential vote. The Democratic coalition divided in 1948 and
1968, in the latter election allowing the Republican candidate Richard Nixon to take the White House.
Democrats kept control of the House until they lost it in the 1994 election. For the next twelve years
the GOP was in control by small majorities, until the Democrats recaptured the chamber in 2006. The
Democrats held the Senate until 1980; since then the two parties have traded control of the Senate
back and forth by small majorities.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
2
POLITICAL CONTROL IN THE PRESIDENCY AND CONGRESS: 1945 TO PRESENT
CONGRESS #
YEARS
PRESIDENT
SENATE
HOUSE
79
1945-47
TRUMAN / D
DEM
DEM
80
1947-49
TRUMAN
REP
REP
81
1949-51
TRUMAN
DEM
DEM
82
1951-53
TRUMAN
REP
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
1953-55
EISENHOWER / R
REP
REP
REP
84
1955-57
EISENHOWER
DEM
DEM
85
1957-59
EISENHOWER
DEM
DEM
86
1959-61
EISENHOWER
DEM
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------87
1961-63
KENNEDY/ D
DEM
DEM
DEM
88
1963-65
JOHNSON/ D
DEM
DEM
89
1965-67
JOHNSON
DEM
DEM
90
1967-69
JOHNSON
DEM
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
1969-71
NIXON/ R
DEM
DEM
92
1971-73
NIXON
DEM
DEM
93
1973-75
NIXON-FORD
DEM
DEM
94
1975-77
FORD
DEM
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
1977-79
CARTER/ D
DEM
DEM
DEM
DEM
96
1979-81
CARTER
DEM
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------97
1981-83
REAGAN/ R
REP
DEM
98
1983-85
REAGAN
REP
DEM
99
1985-87
REAGAN
DEM
DEM
100
1987-89
REAGAN
DEM
DEM
101
1989-91
BUSH/ R
DEM
DEM
DEM
102
1991-93
BUSH
DEM
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------103
1993-95
CLINTON/ D
DEM
DEM
DEM
104
1995-97
CLINTON
REP
REP
105
1997-99
CLINTON
REP
REP
106
1999-2001
CLINTON
REP
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
2001-2003
GW BUSH/ R
DEM
REP
108
2003-2005
GW BUSH
REP
REP
109
2005-07
GW BUSH
REP
REP
110
2007-09
GW BUSH
DEM
DEM
111
2009-11
OBAMA
DEM
DEM
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
REP
3
Truman and Domestic Issues: 1945-1953
ESSAY EXAMPLE (AP 1993)
Describe THREE of the following and analyze the ways in which each has affected the status of
women in America since 1940: Changing economic conditions, the rebirth of an organized women’s
movement, advances in reproductive technology, and the persistence of traditional definitions of
women’s roles.
With the return of large amounts of soldiers from the Second World War, the population in
the United States increased rapidly with the baby boom. Also, women were forced to return
to their homes as former soldiers reclaimed the workplace. This exodus of working women
promoted the idea that the proper place for the women was in the home, but laid the seeds
for the later women’s movement. At this point in time, all the citizens in the United States
wanted was a return to normalcy.
G.I. Bill of Rights, 1944: Congress enacted the bill to provide living allowances, tuition fees,
supplies, medical treatment, and loans for homes and businesses. It was accepted June, 1944 and
helped to stimulate economic growth and the accumulation of wartime profits, new factories and
equipment.
Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion: A 1943 organization that controlled all aspects of
the economy. Needed to facilitate cooperation in the war effort between the government and
representatives of industry and the military, the O.W.M. increased war production 33% in May 1943.
extension of the OPA vetoed: Congress instituted a ration program to conserve materials and battle
inflation. Because of opposition from food producers, manufacturers, and retailers, Truman vetoed
Congress’ 1946 bill that would have extended O.P.A.’s life, and thus ended price controls.
postwar inflation: Two years after the war, consumer prices rose only 8% while the total cost of
living rose 28% between 1940-1945. The National War Labor Board tried to contain restriction by
limiting wage increases and Congress gave the president the power in 1942 to freeze wages to help
combat inflation.
baby boom: The number of babies being born between 1950-1963 rose substantially and the
mortality rate dramatically dropped allowing for a 19% increase in the population. This generation was
able to fuel the economy and widen the realm of education.
Employment Act of 1946: Truman promised economic growth and established the Council of
Economic Advisors to assist the president in maximizing employment, production, and purchasing
power. Wary of federal deficit spending and increased presidential powers, Congress cut the goal of
full employment.
Taft-Hartley Act: Congress modified the Wagner Act in 1947 to outlaw the practices of delaying a
strike, closed shop, and permitting the president to call an eighty-day cooling period. Because it
proved detrimental to certain unions, Truman vetoed the measure, although Congress overrode it.
Taft, Sen. Robert A.: Representing a small group of Republican senators, he warned that entering
into NATO would provoke an arms race with Russia and force the United States to provide military aid
to Europe. He supported that tax measures favorable to the wealthy and no minimum wage increase.
"right to work" laws: An area across TX and southern CA called the Sunbelt outlawed unionized
shops which were to prevent non-unionized workers to benefit, low taxes and energy costs, plants
moving their corporate headquarters here, transformed through technology, and brought green lawn
and suburbs.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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1948 election; candidates, issues: Truman ran against Dewey, a republican devoted to National
unity and Strom Thurmond, who represented the Dixiecrats. representing states rights. Truman wins
with 24 million votes and the platform of the some of the New Deal and bipartisan foreign policy.
Dixiecrats, J. Strom Thurmond: They helped Truman win by showing how the communists in the
Wallace campaign forced liberals back into the mainstream Democratic Party. Strom Thurmond was
able to collect 1.2 million votes and ran under the Democratic party symbol.
Progressive Party, Henry Wallace: He was nominated for President after being fired by Truman for
questioning action taken towards Russia. Considered the true New Deal liberal, supported socialwelfare programs and justice and equality for minorities. Wallace’s’ campaign forced liberals back into
the Democratic party.
FAIR DEAL: Truman proposed a social and economic program during his State of the Union message
in 1949. It enlarged the New Deal by adding housing, conservation, economic security, health
insurance, federal aid to education, agricultural subsidies, increased the minimum wage, expanded
social securities, flood control, slum clearance, expanded public power, reclamation, soil conservation,
building of low income housing units.
Americans for Democratic Action (ADA): Founded in 1947 to initiate the development and
promotion of a national liberal agenda of public policy. Citizen participation was essential through
direct democracy which was equal in only one way: all can exercise the right to vote.
Twenty-second Amendment: adopted in 1951, this bill proclaims that "No person shall be elected
to the office of the President more than twice." It resulted from the agitation following FDR’s running
for and being elected to a third or fourth term of office of president.
McCarthyism
As a result of the recent escalation of the Cold War and the spread of communism
throughout the world, domestic paranoia concerning communist infiltration increased. This
laid the foundation for the investigations of the House Un-American Activities Committee.
Taking advantage of this "Red Scare" was Senator Joseph McCarthy who utilized the fear
and panic of United States citizens to advance his own interests. Though many Americans
believed the investigations were wrong, few said anything.
National Securities Act of 1947, 1949: The CIA was enacted to pursue and conduct espionage and
analyze information and facts concerning the actions of foreign countries. It also became involved in
undercover operations to destroy operations made to be hostile toward the U.S.
HOUSE UN-AMERICAN ACTIVITIES COMMITTEE (HUAC): FDR established this organization to
serve as a platform to the denunciation of the New Deal and communism growth in the U.S. Used to
investigate and expose communist influence in America and blurred the line between dissent and
disloyalty. It also brought about hysteria and caused blacklisting to occur so that people considered to
be "communists" never found work.
MCCARTHYISM, McCarthy, Senator Joseph: He started the hysteria that occurred after the second
Red Scare and accused U.S. citizens of being communists. These accusations appealed to Midwestern
Americans who found that anti-communism was to fight against liberals and internationalists. It took
over the U.S. as a means of fighting communism without realizing that the U.S. was in danger of
losing what it was fighting for, Freedom and the Constitution.
McCarthy, Senator Joseph: Republicans support and political power was given to Senator McCarthy
to instill fear within the Democratic Party. He was supported by the GOP party and many resented that
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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he accused many people of being Communists without having proof of their disloyalty. By accusing
many of communism, McCarthyism arose.
Hiss, Alger: Identified as a member of the communist party by and initially denied claims. Proof was
given that Hiss was involved in espionage in the 1930s with the transmitting of information to the
Soviet Union through microfilm. Indicted for perjury and sentenced to five years in prison, 1950
McCarran Internal Security Act, 1950: Required all organizations that were believed to be
communist by the attorney general to submit a roster of the members and financial statements to the
Department of Justice. It also excluded communists from working in defense plants, passports to
communists and deported aliens suspected of subversion.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg: In March of 1951, based primarily on the testimony of their alleged
accomplices, Henry Greengrass and Harry Gold, the Rosenbergs were found guilty of conspiring to
commit espionage. Their electrocution in 1953 represented the anti-Communist fever that gripped the
U.S.
Hollywood 10: The 10 people from the entertainment industry called before the House Un-American
Activities Committee as "unfriendly" witnesses in October 1947 became known as the Hollywood Ten.
All refused to state whether they were communists, served prison sentences, and were blacklisted in
the film industry.
Fuchs, Klaus: He was a German physicist who was a British citizen from 1942-1950 and an atomic
scientist in the United Kingdom and the United States from 1942 on. He was sentenced to prison in
England in 1950 for having given atomic secrets to the USSR. After he was freed in 1959, he went to
East Germany.
"Pink Lady" - Douglas, Helen Gahagan: When Richard Nixon ran against the liberal Democratic
Jerry Voorhis for a California congressional seat in 1946, he won easily by suggesting that Voorhis had
left-wing tendencies. When Nixon ran for the Senate in 1950, he used similar charges to defeat the
Democratic candidate, Congresswoman Douglas.
ANTI-COMMUNIST VOCABULARY: Red, pink or pinko, left-wing, and commie were some of the
slurs thrown around during the McCarthy years to brand people with a communist "taint." These
campaigns were known as witch-hunts by those who opposed HUAC tactics, and like the Salem witchhunts, accusations alone, without any proof of wrong-doing, could be enough to ruin someone and get
them "blacklisted" and unable to find employment.
Eisenhower and the Domestic Scene: 1953-1961
Hailing Eisenhower as someone whom one might have as a regular neighbor, the country
overwhelmingly elected the former and celebrated World War Two Allied forces
commander. Although a former military leader, Eisenhower strongly believed in the
ascendancy of civilian control over the military and condemned what he termed the
"military-industrial complex." During Eisenhower’s administration, the USSR made several
advances in the space race pushing the United States to catch up.
SAMPLE ESSAY:
To what extent did the decade of the 1950s deserve its reputation as an age of political, social, and cultural
conformity? (AP 1994)
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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1952 election: candidates, issues: Truman would not seek reelection. The Democrats drafted Adlai
Stevenson, who was unsuccessful. The Republicans decided to back the war hero Dwight D.
Eisenhower who chose Nixon as his running mate. The GOP controlled both houses.
IKE AND MODERN REPUBLICANISM: He provided Americans with the stability they craved, and
labeled his credo "Modern Republicanism." In general, he was conservative on monetary issues and
liberal "when it came to human beings." During his term as president, he backed the most extensive
public-works program in U.S. history: the Interstate Highway Act and also extended social security
benefits and raised the minimum wage.
"fiscal management": Large scale labor organizations and social welfare were used to deal with
powerful pressure groups. It rejected an extreme step to the right side of politics and a return to the
pre-New Deal policies. Also, it abandoned the goal of a balanced budget in favor of increased spending
to restore prosperity.
Niebuhr, Reinhold, Rand, Ayn, The Fountainhead: Niebuhr was a theologian who expressed neoOrthodox Protestant views and liberal social thoughts. Ayn Rand was a U.S. novelist who became a
citizen in 1931 and wrote about the struggles of poverty. Her work was important in expressing life’s
hardships and was published in 1928.
McCarran-Walter Immigration Act, 1952: Passed over the presidents’ veto, it validated the quota
system firmly based on the idea that national origin restrained immigration from southern and Eastern
Europe. This act also empowered the attorney general to exclude and deport aliens suspected of being
communists.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW): Eisenhower transformed the Federal
Securities Agency into the H.E.W. and gave it cabinet rank in 1953. This agency allowed for the
reorganization of government in order to achieve greater efficiency and a better economy.
Interstate Highway Act: Passed by Eisenhower, this was the largest and most expensive publicworks system in American history that allowed for the building of 41,000 miles of expressways in
1956. Allowed for suburban growth, the decay of central cities, and increased America’s reliance on
cars.
St. Lawrence Seaway: Approved by Eisenhower, this seaway linked the Great Lakes and the Atlantic
Ocean in 1954. It was built to accelerate suburban growth, expand trade to promote economic
prosperity, and allowed boats greater access to transport goods. It connected Montreal and Lake
Ontario promoting good relations with Canada.
Landrum-Griffin Act: Passed in 1959 to regulate the government of unions, guarantee members’
rights, provisions for anti-corruption, and fair elections. Enacted due to the concern of financial
misconduct on the part of union officials and connected to gangsters and organized crime.
Hoffa, Jimmy: He became president of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters in 1957. Jury
tampering was found after he was sentenced to thirteen years in prison for the fraudulent use of the
union pension fund. After losing his appeals, he was sentenced in 1967 but only served about four
years and nine months in prison.
AFL-CIO merger: In 1955, this brought 85% of all union members into a single administrative unit,
which promised aggressive unionism under the leadership of AFL’s George Meany as president and
CIO’s Walter Reuther as vice-president. However, the movement was unable to achieve its old level of
success.
Alaska, Hawaii: Congress approved Alaska as the forty-ninth state of the Union in June and
Eisenhower signed the Alaska statehood bill on July 7, 1958. Congress approved of giving Hawaii
statehood in March of 1959 and it was admitted to the Union on August 21, 1959.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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SPUTNIK: The Soviet Union launched this first satellite into orbit on October 4, 1957. Humiliated at
being upstaged by the Russians, the U.S. reshaped the educational system in efforts to produce the
large numbers of scientists and engineers that Russia had. In addition, to better make scientific
advancements, NASA was created in 1958. Created by Congress, it brought a national aeronautics
agency to administer nonmilitary space research and exploration.
National Defense Education Act (NDEA Act): Passed in 1958 to provide $300 million in loans to
students of undergraduate and graduate status, funds for training teachers, and for the development
of new instructional material to ensure a higher level of national security.
"military-industrial complex": The demands of national security had produced the symbiotic
relationship of immense military establishment and industry. These intertwined interests helped lead
to leverage in government and threatened subordination of the military.
EVALUATING EISENHOWER (or, “Should we try to “be like Ike?”)
HAVE CHAPTER 38 OF BAILEY OPEN AS YOU READ THROUGH THIS ANALYSIS.
1. EISENHOWER'S PHILOSOPHY: Recall that Ike was truly moderate in many ways. Historians
often site his accomplishments as follows: extension of the reciprocal trade agreements,
enlargement of Social Security, raising of the minimum wage, establishment of the Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, the creation of the Air Force Academy and NASA, etc. You will
note that many of these call for the ENLARGEMENT OF GOVERNMENT in some way (traditionally a
liberal notion). Part of the explanation for this is found on handout I included here -- take a look
at that. Note that he dealt with a Republican Congress for only 25% of his term.
2. LIQUIDATING MCCARTHY: Ike inherited McCarthy. He was very cautious in his approach to
McCarthy and did not publicly denounce him until after McCarthy started attacking the Army in
1954. Recall my comments in class concerning the 1952 campaign and how he handled that
situation!
3. THE McCARTHY LEGACY: Yes, this is a big part of the story concerning Ike's presidency. Note
the picture on page 890 of Bailey. McCarthyism lived on long after the man died in 1957. "UnAmerican" activities (very ill-defined) became the subject of government investigation. Charge
and counter-charge, unfounded allegations, and certainly a deeply rooted fear of communism were
all part of the picture here. It is not a happy chapter in our past.
4. EISENHOWER AND CIVIL RIGHTS: Good pictures on 893, 894, 896, and 898 on this one.
Gunnar Myrdahl, a Swedish sociologist, referred to something called the "American Dilemma" in
the 1950s -- that is to say, we had a commitment to BOTH equality AND white supremacy, an
impossible mix. The dramatic tensions related to Civil Rights, then, began to explode during the
50s. Bailey handles this well on pages 891-897 -- read that carefully. Ike actually proved to be
reluctant in this area. The driving force for Civil Rights during the late 50s WITHIN the
government was a Senator named Lyndon Johnson. Ike did sign two Civil Rights bills (1957 and
1960) under pressure. (Recall that the Civil Rights Bill of 1957 is the one that Strom Thurmond
filibustered for 24 hours and 18 minutes in his attempt to kill the legislation. It passed.)
SOMETHING VERY IMPORTANT TO REALIZE on this, however, is that the ACTUAL SPARK for the
Civil Rights movement came from the AFRICAN-AMERICANS THEMSELVES! This is where King
entered the picture, among others.
5. THE ELECTION OF 1956: No president in our history, not even FDR, enjoyed the kind of
popularity that Ike had at times. He had a heart attack in late 1955, made a remarkable
recovery, and received the nomination of the Republican Party (against Stevenson/Kefauver for
the Democrats). Historians suggest that FOREIGN AFFAIRS during the campaign worked
significantly to Ike's advantage. His credentials as "peacemaker" in Korea, his decision NOT to go
into Indochina (looks pretty smart in hindsight, doesn't it?), the Suez Crisis which occurred the
same week as the election, and the Hungarian Revolt (also the same week) all seemed to play in
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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his favor. He won a landslide, but Republicans failed to retake the Congress (premise: "personal
popularity is more important than party position"?? -- a nice alliteration, eh?)
6. THE SECOND TERM: Not as successful for Ike ("theory of declining influence"). He ran into the
following problems:
A severe recession in 1957 with high unemployment (did that have anything to do with me
being born?!)
Scandals within his administration
The 1958 Congressional elections -- another defeat for the Republicans
Severe political "gridlock" between a moderate Republican president and the liberal wing
of the Democratic Party (people like Lyndon Johnson and John Kennedy)
7. HOW SHOULD ONE EVALUATE EISENHOWER? The conventional views of Eisenhower for
many years placed him in a mediocre category as far as Presidents go. Part of that may be due to
the fact that the 1950s were viewed as a rather "placid" period -- not much going on. That view,
of course, has dramatically changed in recent years. Along with that, Ike has become a darling of
the historians, especially those that fall into the "New Left" camp. Stephen Ambrose has written
extensively on that subject. New sources of information on Eisenhower, for example, have opened
up many differing views of him and his presidency. (Note: Eisenhower is the first President I
remember, although I remember him from his post-Presidential years and I grew up thinking he
was a grandfatherly (and somewhat bumbling) figure who liked to wear cardigan sweaters and
play golf. In the summer of 2002 I had the rare opportunity to hear from several Eisenhower
scholars such as Michael Birkner of Gettysburg College and Richard Immerman of Temple
University, who CONVINCED ME that the traditional view of Ike is WAY OFF THE MARK! In
addition, I was able to interview several people who had worked with Ike personally and
they gave me a VERY DIFFERENT PICTURE OF THE MAN!) Here are some things I learned about
Ike that embody the new scholarship on his Presidency:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
He was a president who worked hard, read a lot --- not a guy that golfed all the time
He was not simply a "front-guy" for the millionaires in his cabinet, but rather, an intense
politician who worked hard to convince the right wing of his party that they needed to accept
some of the leftist program of the New Dealers
He actually strove to discredit McCarthy -- behind the scenes -- even though he was careful
about it from a political standpoint
He was an excellent writer, not some "tongue-tied" dull-witted person
Eisenhower correctly saw that involvement in a ground war in Indochina (Vietnam) would be a
big mistake -- and carried through on that
And most interesting, he was a highly credible military person who, nevertheless, hoped to
keep defense spending down and felt compelled to talk openly about that toward the end of
his term
ARE THE REVISIONIST VIEWS CORRECT? As Howard Zinn would say, "it depends on your
perspective." The truth about any President lies somewhere in the middle and Presidential reputations
rise and fall with some predictability.
TWO OTHER IMAGES FROM YOUR BOOK:
1. Look at Nixon's face on page 888. There seems to be something symbolic about that picture. I'm
not sure what it is.
2. Also, take a look at the picture on page 908. I figure that our computer lab would have to be
about the size of the entire high school in order to accommodate those early computers. Just a
thought.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
9
Civil Rights to 1960
After the army became desegregated in 1948, the position of African-Americans in civilian
society came under increasing scrutiny. There was widespread recognition that the
integration of society had not progressed as it was supposed to and that it was time for the
African-American citizens to take a stand. Landmark decisions in the Supreme Court as well
as civil rights laws foreshadowed the changes and upheaval that would come in this and
following decades.
SAMPLE ESSAY (AP 1991)
Although the 1960s are usually considered the decade of greatest achievement for civil rights, the 1940s
and 50s were periods of equally important gains. Assess the validity of this statement.
SAMPLE ESSAY (AP 1985)
What accounted for the growth between 1940 and 1965 of popular and governmental concern for the
position of Blacks in American society.
Randolph, A. Philip: President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters who worked to build his
March-on-Washington Committee into an all-black protest movement. The Committee also engaged in
civil disobedience to protest racial discrimination in all aspects of American life.
Fair Employment Practices Committee: Roosevelt issued this committee in 1941 to enforce the
policy of prohibiting employment-related discrimination practices by federal agencies, unions, and
companies involved in war-related work for the purpose of enforcing an Executive Order and made
possible the employment of 2 million blacks.
Detroit race riots, 1966: Erupted because of constant conflict between black citizens and white
cops, resulting in the bloodiest riot in this half-century. Forty-three were found dead, thousands were
wounded, and over $50 million in property was destroyed.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): The Congress of Racial Equality was formed in 1942 to help
combat discrimination through nonviolent, direct action. Led by James Farmer, it organized Freedom
Rides that rode throughout the south to try to force desegregation of public facilities.
Drew, Dr. Charles: As an African-American physician, he developed techniques for the storing and
processing of blood for transfusion in 1944. He also conducted research on the preservation of blood
and during WWII he developed blood-transfusion programs for the British and French.
Myrdal, Gunnar, An American Dilemma: A Swedish economist, Gunnar wrote about anticipated
changes in race relations, as well as the problems between the races in 1944. He specifically noted
that Black veterans returned with very high expectations from civilian life due to war.
rural and Southern to urban and Northern : Eisenhower sought to give low income farmers
increased training and trade as well as to improve industry and the health of citizens of the rural
South . In the urban North, a great emphasis was put upon renovation and the rehabilitation of the
cities opposed to clearance and reconstruction.
To Secure These Rights: The 1946 Committee on Civil Rights dramatized the inequities of life in the
South and under the Jim Crow laws. It called for an end to racial discrimination and segregation, and
was called "an American charter of human freedom," by President Truman.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
10
desegregation of the armed forces, 1948: Truman ended segregation in the army to provide
support during World War II to ensure victory. He was the first president to deal with the legislative
civil rights since the implementation of Reconstruction and fought for many other civil rights acts but
was denied.
Korean War: Seen as a Soviet-directed aggression to test American containment policy. On June 27,
1950, Truman ordered American troops to invade South Korea. General Douglas MacArthur sought
total victory, and in 1953 a cease fire was issued after a truce agreement was signed by the U.N. and
Communists.
"separate but equal": Enacted because of the inferiority complex given to blacks, it set forth an
attempt to liberalize without losing control. The Supreme Court said that it had no place in schools, so
it ordered the desegregation of schools, navy yards and veteran hospitals.
BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA: The Supreme Court reversed Plessy v. Ferguson
in 1954 by ruling in favor of the desegregation of schools. The court held that "separate but equal"
violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and was unconstitutional. Refusing
to force the white south to accept the ruling, defiance toward the law sprang up. Many southerners
saw it as "an abuse of judiciary power."
Marshall, Thurgood: 1st African American justice of the Supreme Court, famous for his fight against
discrimination, the death penalty, and his support of civil liberties and free speech. Previously a lawyer
with such key victories as in Brown v. Board of Education, founder of the NAACP Legal Defense.
MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT, Rosa Parks: In December of 1955, Parks refused to get up from her
seat on the bus to give it to a white man, and was therefore arrested. This led to massive bus
boycotts in Montgomery, Alabama. Because of her actions she is known as the "mother" of civil rights.
Resistance to desegregation of buses was finally overcome by the Supreme Court ruling that it was
unconstitutional to segregate public transportation in November, 1956.
King Jr., Rev. Martin Luther: An African-American leader who was the voice of his people. His
philosophy emphasized need for direct action by getting every African-American involved in the
pursuit of equality and to build a community of brotherhood in his "I have a dream" speech. On April
4, 1968 he was assassinated.
LITTLE ROCK CRISIS: Governor Orval E. Faubus sent the National Guard to bar nine black students
from entering Central High School in Arkansas in 1957. Eisenhower then enforced a new court order
that forced the men to withdraw, and a mob of whites reacted by preventing the students from
entering the school. Then The National Guard was sent to protect the students from the violence for
the rest of the school year. The school was then shut down in 1958-59.
Civil Rights Act, 1957: Eisenhower passed this bill to establish a permanent commission on civil
rights with investigative powers but it did not guarantee a ballot for blacks. It was the first civil-rights
bill to be enacted after Reconstruction which was supported by most non-southern whites.
Civil Rights Act, 1960: Eisenhower passed this bill to appease strong southern resistance and only
slightly strengthened the first measures provisions. Neither act was able to empower federal officials
to register the right to vote for African-Americans and was not effective.
literacy tests, poll tax: Literacy tests were given to blacks with the idea that they would be denied
the right to vote since most could not read. The poll tax prevented African-Americans from voting by
requiring all voters to pay a tax, which blacks could not afford. In 1966, the poll tax was outlawed in
all elections.
grandfather clause, white primaries: The grandfather clause was a provision used to exclude
people who served in the war and their descendants from taking suffrage tests. It was declared
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
11
unconstitutional in 1915. White primaries were used to control everything even with
disenfranchisement and were declared unconstitutional in 1944.
ROBINSON, JACKIE: He was the first African-American baseball player to play professionally in
1947. He was able to break the color barrier and seemed to successfully overcome the racism so
prevalent in his sport. Robinson was also was able to contribute to the winning of the pennant and
Rookie of the Year in his first year of playing.
SAMPLE ESSAY (AP 1982)
Compare the goals and strategies of the Black reform movements of the period 1890-1910 to the goals
and strategies of the Black reform movements in the period 1950-1970.
YOUTH CULTURE IN THE 1950s
Historians who have studied post-World War Two youth cultures have looked to the quietly turbulent
1950s as a precursor of the openly turbulent 1960s. In this view, the cultural contradictions of the
1950s—and the struggles that grew out of them—were the first shock waves of the counter-cultural
earthquake that shook mainstream American society in the 1960s. Teen films and rock'n'roll served as
oppositional benchmarks for the emerging counterculture. For those historians who are fans of the
oppositional—as most historians of youth culture today are—1950s middle-class youth are not dull
conformist patsies for the corporate consumerist state, but pre-revolutionaries, as it were. While some
of these historians note the complex nature of 1950s rebellion that combined oblique resistance to
mainstream culture along with accommodation, most assume that the legacy was positive.
Scholars studying the 1960s counterculture have largely divided between two seemingly dissimilar
perspectives. One view attacks the counterculture as being the products of overindulged suburban
brats, while the other view celebrates the counterculture as saviors of an America that was fast
approaching a failure of its soul due to the massive buildup of hubris and smug material selfsatisfaction in its ever-more restricted veins. In Unfinished Journey, a perceptive synthesis of post1945 America, William Chafe maintains a more balanced approach. He first praises the spirit and the
message of the counterculture, tracing its roots to 1950s rock'n'roll and the Beats. Later on, however,
he argues, "Reared in consumer culture and glutted with the goodies it provides, many adherents of
the counter culture proved unable to shed the impulse to acquisitiveness that had become so
internalized during the earlier years....In its own way, therefore, the counterculture simply became an
additional market for corporate America, it own fierce conformity providing a ready outlet for new, upto-date variants of the old affluent society."
But middle-class youth had been a market since the 1950s, not only for corporate America, but for
any entrepreneur who had the vision, moxie, dumb luck, and start-up capital to create, produce and
distribute a commodity that would be valued by mainstream youth. Indeed, the very sources Chafe
and others cite as roots of the 1960s oppositional youth culture—rock'n'roll, teen films, even the
books of the Beats—were commodities that were incorporated into the consumer capitalist system.
Implicit in the generational discourse developed during the 1950s was that oppositional culture was
created through consumer culture, and that this was a "natural" occurrence. My argument here is that
those participating in the counterculture did not simply succumb to consumerism because of their
upbringing, but that the very texts that created the opportunities for an oppositional culture
simultaneously limited those opportunities and helped produce the contradictions that led to its
downfall.
Both the middle-class youth and the cultural producers were a part of their larger culture and it is
there we should start our investigation. During the post-war period, the number of people earning a
middle-class income increased substantially. These well-paying jobs, along with the GI Bill, the
expansion of credit, and the development of low-cost suburban developments, enabled more
Americans to acquire various parts of the American Dream—home ownership, several automobiles, a
college education, the promise of upward mobility. The mainstream media preached that the nuclear
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
12
family would now be secure. Mom would be able to stay at home with the kids—lots of them, because
the baby business was booming—and Dad would be able to bring home the requisite bacon.
But this vision was rife with contradictions. The economic expansion was sustained largely by military
Keynsianism justified by the Cold War, which helped to trigger a wide variety of anxieties. The more
sinister the threat from worldwide communism, the greater the need for more missiles, highways,
aircraft and other high-ticket jobs programs. One nasty by-product of all this anxiety was the vast
anti-communist apparatus that sprang up during this time to root out all commies, com sympathizers,
and other degenerates—not forgetting homosexuals, who posed as great a threat to the American
Way of Life as did Godless Communism. And while many pundits and politicians swore that poverty
was fast disappearing, ideology was ending, and American was becoming One Big Nation Under God,
signs kept popping up everywhere contradicting this notion.
During this period, African-Americans began demanding their basic civil rights, gay advocacy groups
advanced the radical theory that homosexuality was not a disease, and poverty seemed unable to
behave as it was supposed to—it kept creeping forward, as more Americans fell below the poverty
line. And despite all claims to the contrary, the nuclear family was really a mess. Experts blamed
women for an array of problems within the family, from their husband's anxieties, cholesterol level,
and impotence, to their children's alienation from society, juvenile delinquency, and spoiled natures.
Suburban white women, meanwhile, increased their usage of valium by 400%. White middle-class
men, anointed by the mainstream discourse as the natural leaders of society, were finding that the
corporation had appropriated most of their economic control, working wives presented a challenge to
their notion of the Competent Breadwinner, and the threat of nuclear holocaust had undermined any
faith that they had in controlling their own destiny. Those in control of mainstream discourses during
this time worked very hard to gloss over these contradictions, to continually reassert just what
"normal" was, and to punish those who strayed outside that definition. But these broad attempts at
conformity simply increased anxiety, as a number of intellectuals began questioning the fate of the
mainstream discourse's most prized myth, individualism.
Perhaps nowhere did the contradictions of the mainstream discourse reveal themselves as with its
obsession with youth. Youth were "our kids," members of the idealized family, but they were also "the
juvenile delinquent," "the rebel," or more clinically, "the typical teen." Sometimes youth were
belonged to one monolithic group—"kids today"—but sometimes they were divided into "good" and
"bad" kids, which often suggested divisions between races, classes and ethnic groups in some
unspoken way. Youth were suddenly powerful, shapers of society, but they were also helpless victims,
pawns in the hands of machinating advertising agencies; they were the hope for the future, they were
a threat to Western civilization.
The structures of consumer capitalism helped create a white middle-class subculture that was
socialized to see themselves as the natural inheritors of society’s perquisites, but who were restricted
from exercising control over many of these perquisites. Middle-class youth were thus both within and
outside mainstream culture—a condition exacerbated by the mainstream culture's schizophrenic
approach to youth during the 1950s—and generationalism reflects this contradiction. The generational
discourse contained messages that were both oppositional and accomodationist toward the culture
that they—as a group—would most likely enter with the passage of time.
(Source: Michael Lewis Goldberg/ University of Washington, Bothell/ Retrieved 12/19/02)
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
13
Civil Rights to 1965
Frustrated by black disenfranchisement in the south and the blatant racism epitomized by
segregated schools, black militancy grew. Sit-ins, freedom rides, and other signs of the
explosive discontent ravaged the nation, especially in the south where such actions were
met by fierce resistance. Destroying the public’s complacency, nonviolent protest met by
vicious dogs, blasting water hoses, and sneering racists shocked the nation. Black Power
and the cry that "Black is Beautiful" resounded in the hearts of many African Americans.
Implementation of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: The Warren court decided in 1954
that the separate but equal concept that legalized segregation was unconstitutional. Angered by the
court decision, white southerners refused to comply; the president refused to enforce it and blacks
continued to attend segregated schools.
Montgomery bus boycott: After refusing to give up her seat for a white man in the front of a
Montgomery bus in Dec. 1955, Rosa Park was arrested. Black leaders, including King, organized a
massive boycott of the buses and took the case to a lower court where it was decided that bus seating
would be based on a first-come-first-serve basis.
King Jr. Rev. Martin Luther.: One of the most prominent black civil rights leaders, King called for
black assertiveness and nonviolent resistance to oppression. He is famous for his "Letter from
Birmingham Jail" which promotes the doctrine of civil disobedience, a method of protests that urges
blacks to ignore all laws that they believe are unjust.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference: In protest to Jim Crow, King organized the SCLC in
1957. It was made up of a group of ministers that supported the Montgomery bus boycott. This
organization coordinated future protests and preached the need for civil rights activists.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The NAACP was created
in 1909 in New York to raise the quality of living for inner city blacks. It became a powerful legal force
and argued cases in the Supreme Court which led to the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and Voting Rights
Act of 1965.
Urban League: Some southern blacks were not satisfied by the Brown v. Board of Education and
formed the Urban League. Rejecting the courtroom strategy utilized by the NAACP, the League
advocated more militant tactics. They sought direct confrontation and violence with local
governments.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): CORE was a group of black rights protesters created in 1942.
It organized freedom rides through the south to expose the violations of the 1960 Supreme Court
decision outlawing segregation on interstate buses and trains. CORE also registered blacks to vote
throughout the South.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Stokely Carmicheal, H. Rap Brown:
SNCC was an organization of college students that utilized nonviolent forms of protest until Carmicheal
and Brown rallied the members in favor of Black Power. The group became more militant, pushing for
direct armed confrontation with the police.
SIT-INS, FREEDOM RIDES: Utilized in the spring of 1961, sit-ins and freedom rides were forms of
protest organized by CORE and utilized in the spring of 1961. Protestors sat in a segregated section on
a bus or restaurant until they were forced to move by racists. When this happened another protestor
took the place that had just been vacated. This type of action was used to expose the violations of the
court decision to outlaw segregation in public areas and transit.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
14
"I have a dream" speech: King gave this speech during the historic civil rights March on Washington
on August 28, 1963. The speech was said to be inspiring and reaffirmed the need for civil rights
legislation and nonviolent protesting. The speech reiterated the American ideals of democracy and
equality.
March on Washington: King organized this massive civil protest march in Washington in August of
1963 as a result of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The march reaffirmed the need for civil
rights legislation and nonviolent protest. It was also the site where King made the "I have a dream"
speech.
Evers, Medgar: Evers was an American civil rights leader who conducted campaigns to register black
voters and organized boycotts of firms that practiced racial discrimination. He also was one of the
early recruiters for the NAACP and was the first field secretary for the state of Mississippi.
Powell, Adam Clayton: Powell was a Black civil rights leader serving as a Democratic Congressman
of New York and the Chairman of the House Committee on Education and Labor in 1960-1967. Under
his direction the House Committee on Education and Labor passed the Minimum Wage Bill and AntiPoverty Bill.
Weaver, Robert: Weaver was the first black cabinet member appointed by President Lyndon B.
Johnson in 1966. He served as the Secretary of Housing and Department of Urban Development, a
new office created to address the needs of those living in the inner city areas.
Marshall, Thurgood: Marshall was the first black residing under the Warren Court during the 1960s.
Marshall was famous for pursuing cases that dealt with controversial issues of civil rights and the
status of racism in America. His presence in Supreme Court drew more attention to the area of civil
and individual rights.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was an influential black leader who called for unity between blacks to combat
oppressive forces in the United States. He was a part of the Nation of Islam, but broke with them to
form a black nationalist group, the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). He advocated Black
Power.
Black Panthers: The Black Panthers was a black rights political organization created in Oakland,
California in 1966 by Bobby G. Seale and Huey P. Newton. It was originally a small community action
group for defense against racism but later it began to urge black armament and direct confrontation
with the police.
Black Muslims: Formally called the Nation of Islam, the Black Muslims was a religious organization of
the Islamic faith that was also called the American Muslim Mission, World Community of Al-Islam in
the West. The group was known for its strict adherence to Islam, and was a root for black militancy in
America.
Davis, Angela: Angela Davis was an influential black leader and activist. In 1970, she went into
hiding after being accused of aiding an attempted courtroom escape that killed four persons. Tried in
1972 and acquitted, she became the vice-presidential candidate of the Communist party in 1980.
BLACK POWER: Black power was a slogan created by Malcolm X and widely used by Stokely
Carmichael, leader of the Congress of Racial Equality. The slogan called for all blacks to organize
together and overthrow the oppressive forces of racism in America. Black power became the basis for
black militancy in the civil rights movement. The slogan was used by a number of new civil rights
activist groups such as the Black Panthers.
Twenty-fourth Amendment: The 24th Amendment, adopted in 1964, gave voting rights to every
American citizen, regardless of their race or religion. It also prohibited the use of the poll tax or any
tax that denied the vote. The amendment gave Congress the power to enforce it with legislation.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
15
Watts, Detroit race riots: A confrontation between police and blacks in Watts and Detroit took place
after the voting rights bill was passed in 1965. It sparked a huge riot that lasted six days. The
National Guard was called to put down both riots. This violent growth of civil discontent was given the
name "The Long Hot Summers."
Kerner Commission on Civil Disorders: Created to investigate reasons for the massive outbreaks
of riots in 1965, the commission concluded that white racism caused mounting violence, poverty, poor
education and police brutality and recommended creating 2 million jobs and 6 million housing units to
lower tensions. The suggestion was ignored.
de facto, de jure segregation: De facto referred to the use of power and authority in the absence of
an actual government or legal authority. In the 1960s, this meant that segregation was accepted as
long as it was not outlawed. De jure segregation referred to the system of segregation that was legal
in the North such as New York and Chicago.
WHITE BACKLASH: White backlash referred to white reaction against the massive ghetto riots of
thousands of young blacks across the nation. The reaction slowed the civil rights movement because
whites in power feared passing legislation and creating civil discontent and riots.
CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1964, public accommodations section of the act: Passed under the
Johnson administration, this act outlawed segregation in public areas and granted the federal
government power to fight black disfranchisement. The act also created the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to prevent discrimination in the work place. This act was the
strongest civil rights legislation since Reconstruction and invalidated the Southern Caste System.
VOTING RIGHTS ACT, 1965: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed as a Great Society program
under the Johnson administration. It prohibited the use of literacy tests as a part of the voter
registration process which were initially used as a method to control immigration to the United States
during the 1920s. The act enabled federal examiners to register anyone who qualified in the South,
giving the power of the vote to underrepresented minorities.
Civil Rights Act, 1968: The Civil Rights Act of 1968 barred discrimination in housing sales or rentals.
This act was a part of a series of new legislation that encouraged desegregation of blacks in America.
The act was a key piece of legislation which ensured blacks more equal rights.
Kennedy’s New Frontier: 1961-63
Innovative, charming, self-confident, and energetic, JFK vigorously called on the American
people to support his programs of domestic reform and foreign policy. He hoped for "more
sacrifice instead of more security" in a nation on "the frontier of unknown opportunities
and perils."
election of 1960: candidates, "missile gap": The election of 1960 was a race between Kennedy,
who promised a new and better future for the nation, and the "middle way" Republican candidate,
Richard M. Nixon. The issues included which path of action to take against Russia to ensure an
advantage of arms, thus closing the missile gap.
"Impeach Earl Warren": The ultra-reactionary John Birch Society created the phrase, "impeach Earl
Warren" in 1954 as a result of Chief Justice Earl Warren’s rulings which affirmed the rights of alleged
communists and the desegregation of schools and public areas. Warren was branded a communist
sympathizer by his enemies. As a result, he lost the respect and admiration of the American public, his
political friends in congress, and the government.
Miranda Decision, Escobedo decision: The Miranda Decision referred to the 1966 case of Miranda
v. Arizona which required police to read a suspect their constitutional right which included remaining
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
16
silent and having legal council present during police questioning. The Escobedo decision labeled the
Warren Court as an intrusive presence.
Gideon v. Wainwright: The Warren Court ruled in the case of Gideon v. Wainwright that the state
was required to provide attorneys for defendants in felony cases at the public’s expense. This ruling
was a part of the effort to reform the criminal justice system and enable poor people legal council.
Baker v. Carr: In 1962, the Warren court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote" needed to
be maintained in all elections. The ruling reaffirmed the requirement that representation in legislative
bodies would be based on the people’s vote. Also, this decision would prevent later voting frauds.
Kennedy and the steel price rollback: In his attempt to lower business taxes and solve wage
problems, JFK was faced with a crisis when U.S. Steel raised their prices to $6 after JFK worked with
the steel union for noninflationary contracts and minimal wage increases for workers. He threatened
to file antitrust suits and the prices fell.
Peace Corps, VISTA: The Peace Corps and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) were created by
the Office of Economic Opportunity to work in poverty areas. This was a part of President Johnson’s
training programs and support services created during the 1960s.
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): As frustrations concerning government policies grew,
this organization was created in 1962. The SDS became a focal point for activist students. The SDS
organized massive Vietnam Protests. They issued the Port Huron Statement which called for support of
liberalism.
Flower children: Flower children referred to the counterculture of the 1960s. This social category
consisted mainly of student protestors who envisioned a life of freedom and harmony. They led
pilgrimages to San Francisco and New York, but the counterculture rise was stemmed as the idealism
turned into thievery, rape, and drugs.
Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring: Rachel Carson was a marine biologist that wrote and published Silent
Spring. It addressed her concerns on the environmental hazards of pesticides. Her writings coincided
with many other novels which brought social issues to the surface such as Betty Friedan’s The
Feminine Mystique.
Reich, Charles, The Greening of America: In his critical novel of the New Deal, Reich expressed his
desire for courts to expand individual rights to protect nonconformists from social standards in 1971.
He stated that it was impossible to mix individual interests in large general tax bills.
Oswald, Lee Harvey, Warren Commission: On Nov. 22, 1963 in Texas, John F. Kennedy was shot
and killed by Lee Havery Oswald. As a result, the Warren Commission was created to investigate the
controversial issues concerning a possible conspiracy. Oswald was later killed by Jack Ruby on his way
to a court hearing.
REFERENCE OUTLINE: KENNEDY AND THE NEW FRONTIER (1961-63)
(1) THE 1960 ELECTION
A/ Candidates
1. Republicans: Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge
Nixon was 47 years old, two-term VP under Eisenhower
A true “cold warrior” that had made a name with HUAC
2. Democrats: John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson
Kennedy was 43 years old, Senator from Massachusetts
Defeated the more liberal Hubert Humphrey for nomination
B/ Context
1. Neither candidate generated much enthusiasm
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
17
2. Nixon appeared to be manipulative and unimaginative
3. Kennedy had a “tentative” reputation other than the fact that he was a war hero
a. Failed to take a stand against McCarthyism
b. Was a product of his father’s money?
4. His acceptance speech seemed to suggest that he had been misjudged:
“We stand on the edge of a New Frontier -- the frontier of the sixties -- a frontier of unknown
opportunities and perils -- a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats. Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom
promised our nation a new political and economic framework. Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal promised
security and succor to those in need. But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises -it is a set of challenges. It sums up, not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend
to ask of them. It appeals to their pride, not their pocket book -- it holds out the promise of more
sacrifice instead of more security.”
* Notice the call to sacrifice and service
* Notice the connection he draws to previous reform movements
5. Kennedy’s Handicaps
a. Age factor -- Was he too young?
b. Religious affiliation -- Roman Catholicism
c. Nixon’s experience
6. How did he handle the “religion question”? He essentially tried to hit the issue
on”:
“head
“I believe in an America where the separation of Church and State is absolute -- where no
Catholic prelate would tell the President (should he be Catholic) how to act, and no Protestant minister
would tell his parishioners for whom to vote -- where no church or church school is granted any public
funds or political preference -- and where no man is denied public office merely because his religion
differs from the President who might appoint him or the people who might elect him.”
7. The Debates: Four of them in September and October
a. Something new in our political campaigns
b. Conventional wisdom is that these worked to Kennedy’s advantage
C/ OUTCOME OF THE ELECTION
1. Closest election since 1888 -- Kennedy’s popular voted total is 2/10 of 1%
Nixon’s
2. Kennedy wins the industrial northeast and the South
3. Nixon sweeps the western states
4. End of eight years of dominance by the Republicans
5. A very close election with no particular mandate for Kennedy
(2) THE KENNEDY STYLE AND THE ONSET OF “CAMELOT”
A/ The inaugural challenge:
greater than
“And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you -- ask what you can do for
your country.”
B/ The Administration
1. Kennedy’s Cabinet (“junior officers of World War II)
a. Robert Kennedy (age 35): Attorney General
b. Dean Rusk: Secretary of State
c. Robert McNamara: Secretary of Defense
2. Kennedy’s Style
a. Vigor and enthusiasm mixed with youth
b. Surrounded himself with intellectuals
c. The Kennedy “wit” became legendary -- televised press conferences
3. The “Style v. Substance” Question? (Promise v. Performance?)
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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(3) THE KENNEDY DOMESTIC AGENDA: THE “NEW FRONTIER”
A/ 88th CONGRESS
1. Democratic Majority
2. Powerful coalition of conservative southern Democrats (leery of the “Kennedy boys”) and
Northern Republicans were able to block much of what Kennedy wanted to do. For example . . .
a. Medicare
b. Department of Urban Affairs and Housing
c. Mass transit legislation
d. Federal aid to Education
3. Was Kennedy too cautious? A criticism he faced. . .
B/ SIGNIFICANT ACCOMPLISHMENTS?
1. Raising of minimum wage
2. Liberalization of Social Security
3. Extension of emergency unemployment compensation
4. Providing new housing
5. Federal Water Pollution Control Act
* Note that these are essentially extensions of the New Deal and Fair Deal
C/ KENNEDY AND THE ECONOMY
1. Did he move too prudently?
2. Economy was sluggish when he came into office
a. Growth was lagging
b. 7% unemployment rate
c. Recessionary period
3. Kennedy’s Approach?
a. Easier credit (reduced interest rates)
b. Investment tax credit
c. Stepped up military and highway spending
d. Embraced “New Economics”: New Dealers had argued for
deficit spending during depression periods (Keynesian).
New Economics people said that deficit spending could
be practiced even when economy wasn’t in a depressed
state, and also that a TAX CUT would encourage consumer
spending and investment! Kennedy’s economic ideas were
really the forerunner of what would later be called “supplyside” theory.
D/ KENNEDY AND CIVIL RIGHTS
1. Facing tough southern democrats, he needed to move slowly
2. Relied primarily on Executive action, as opposed to legislative
3. Examples of actions taken
a. Open support of the Brown decision
b. Appointments of blacks to high places
c. Set up “Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity” under VP Johnson
4. RFK’s actions as Attorney General
a. Blacks recruited for the Department of Justice
b. Suits brought dealing with the denial of voting rights
c. Integration of schools promoted aggressively
d. Integration of public facilities in the South pushed
5. Foreshadowing racial violence of the later sixties
a. James Meredith case: Black air force vet who was denied admission to U of
Mississippi - - September 30, 1962. Federal Marshals were sent to escort him to the campus and
violence ensued. Kennedy sent in the troops.
b. The “Kennedy boys” were despised in the South, yet black leaders felt they were
moving too slowly. The whole issue of civil rights becomes a political hot potato
c. Summer of 1963: Race issues move to the forefront: Massive demonstrations
have an effect
d. George Wallace and the Alabama situation
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
19
1. June of 1963: 2 students attempt to enroll at the University of Alabama.
Wallace physically bars their entrance.
2. Kennedy sends in the troops
“Other American Presidents, notably Harry Truman, had spoken out against discrimination, but
Kennedy will go down in history as the first President to identify himself with the elimination of racial
segregation.”
6. Failure to Move Congress
a. Last months of Kennedy’s life saw a rising tide of racism and ugly violence
b. “March on Washington” (King’s famous speech) took place in the summer of 1963
and was intended to push for the passage of Kennedy’s Civil Rights Bill -- which was not passed until
after Kennedy’s death (Civil Rights Act of 1964)
Johnson and the Great Society: 1963-1969
An idealistic call for improved environmental, conservation, racial, educational, and health
programs, the Great Society was inspired by JFK and prompted by LBJ’s insecure need to
win over the American people. Largely successful in the first two years of the Johnson
administration, the idealism would later give way to virulent conservatism and a return to
traditional values.
SAMPLE ESSAY (AP 1989)
“Vice-Presidents who have succeeded to the presidency on the death of the President have been less
effective in their conduct of domestic AND foreign policy than the men they replaced.” Assess the
validity of this statement for any TWO of the following pairs: William McKinley and Teddy Roosevelt,
Franklin Roosevelt and Harry Truman, or John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson
Election of 1964: LBJ, Goldwater: In the election of 1964 Lyndon Johnson, the elected Democratic
party majority leader, defeated Barry Goldwater, the elected Republican majority leader. Main issues
of the election of 1964 included serious debates over the continuation of Johnson’s Great Society plan,
future civil rights legislation and the status of the war in Vietnam. Lyndon Johnson attempted to
continue his Great Society program after the election with small social legislation.
SAMPLE ESSAY (AP 1992)
In what ways did the Great Society resemble the New Deal in its origins, goals, and social and political
legacy? Cite specific programs and policies in support of your arguments.
Office of Economic Opportunity: The Office of Economic Opportunity was created as a part of
President Johnson’s Great Society. Established by the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, the office
funded the Job Corps to train young people to work, VISTA, and Project Headstart.
War on Poverty: The term, War on Poverty, referred to Lyndon Johnson’s statement describing his
goal to create a better America. It was used to describe Johnson’s Great Society package that created
the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the Economic Opportunity Office, which began
the first funding for education.
Elementary and Secondary Act: As a part of his Great Society vision, President Lyndon Johnson
rallied for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 which gave federal aid to education.
The law gave over one billion dollars to public and parochial schools for books and special education
programs.
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Medicare: A program of national health insurance created by the Social Security Amendments of
1965, this program gave health insurance for persons who were over the age of 65 or seriously
disabled. Although some states refused to administer the insurance the Kerr-Mills Act of 1960
provided federal support for state medical programs.
Abolition of immigration quotas: President Lyndon Johnson’s program of liberalism, which included
social legislation in 1965, led to the liberalization of immigration laws. These laws abolished the
restrictions and the quota based system previously used by the U.S. to determine the amount of
immigration from a certain area.
Department of Housing and Urban Development: Created in 1966 to give aid to needy families
located in poor inner city areas, the Department of Housing and Urban Development passed bills
allocating funds to housing development projects under the leadership of Robert Weaver.
New Left: The New Left encompassed the liberalism of college students during the 1960s. They held
idealistic views of civil rights movements, supported the election of John F. Kennedy, and heralded the
campaign against nuclear testing that created the nuclear test ban treaty of 1963. It was also the root
of protest over Vietnam.
Kennedy, Robert: Kennedy was the attorney general of the U.S. in 1968 and senator from New York.
He stressed that voting was the key to racial equality and pushed for the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Kennedy gained the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968, but was assassinated in California
during a campaign.
Election of the 1968: Lyndon Johnson did not run for reelection in 1968 due to his dissatisfaction
with the Vietnam War and public discontent. Richard Nixon captured the presidency for the Republican
party after he defeated George C. Wallace, the American Independent and Hubert H. Humphrey, the
Democratic candidate.
SAMPLE ESSAY (AP 2000)
Discuss, with respect to two of the following, the view that the 1960s represented a period of profound
cultural change: EDUCATION, MUSIC, GENDER ROLES, RACE RELATIONS
Chicago, Democratic Party Convention riot: In August 1968, the Chicago convention was
disrupted by violence due to the party split over the nomination of the majority leader. Tensions rose
as young SDS protestors against the Vietnam war arrived to voice their discontent. The riot destroyed
Democratic unity and resulted in a loss of support.
Nixon, Richard’s Southern strategy: In 1965, Nixon began his attack on radicalism in America,
focusing on the failure of southern white efforts to destroy racial equality. Nixon went on television to
condemn the court that enforced bus desegregation. He also appointed W. Burger to counter
liberalism in the Warren Court.
Wallace, Governor: George Wallace was an American politician and three-time governor of Alabama.
He first came to national attention as an outspoken segregationist. Wallace ran for the presidency in
1968 and 1972 and was shot and killed during a 1972 election campaign stop in Maryland.
MOON RACE, Armstrong, Neil: Frightened out of complacency by the Soviet launching of Sputnik, a
satellite, Kennedy promised the American people to put a man on the moon before the end of the
decade. Pouring vast amounts of money into the space program, Kennedy was determined not to
allow Russia to win. On July 21, 1969, Neil Armstrong walked on the moon’s surface. Americans put
fears of Soviet technological superiority to rest for the United States had been the first to launch a
human out into space.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
21
Sunbelt verses Rustbelt: The leading work industries, the Rustbelt and Sunbelt, reeled under the
triple blow of slumping exports, aggressive foreign competition, and technological obsolescence. About
11.5 million American workers lost jobs as a result of plant closings or lack of work.
Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique: The Feminine Mystique elucidated to readers that they
were not alone in their unhappiness. Friedan’s personal demand for "something more than my
husband, my children, and my home" rang true to a growing number of middle class American women
who found joys in motherhood.
National Organization for Women (NOW): The National Organization for Women was formed in
1966. Defining themselves as a civil-rights group for women, NOW lobbied for equal opportunity; they
filed lawsuits against gender discrimination and rallied public opinion "to bring American women to full
participation."
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): By 1972 Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to
the Constitution. This amendment stated that "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or
abridged by the United States or any State on the basis of sex."
National Women’s Political Caucus: The National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) endorsed
candidates that promoted a feminist agenda in Washington and many other State capitals. By 1972,
many states had liberalized their abortion laws and banned sex discrimination in job hiring.
Nader, Ralph, Unsafe at Any Speed: Ralph Nader, a graduate of Harvard Law School, exposed the
danger of automobiles that were "unsafe at any speed"; he brought forth the movement of
environmental concerns which would later launch major campaigns for federal regulations.
SAMPLE ESSAY (1P 1998)
“1968 was a turning point for the United States.” To what extent is this an accurate assessment? In your
answer, discuss TWO of the following: National Politics, Vietnam War, Civil Rights
AP HISTORY: SUMMARY OUTLINE LBJ AND THE GREAT SOCIETY
I. JOHNSON IN CONTEXT
A/ BACKGROUND
1. Self-made man from Texas hill country
2. 55 years old when he became President
3. A true "New Deal" Democrat/ NYA Director in Texas
4. Long career in Congress prior to Vice-Presidency
5. Intimidating and extremely ego-centric/ Ultra-sensitive to criticism, anxious
for approval, and hoping to be greater than FDR
6. Contrast to Kennedy and the "Eastern Establishment"
** LBJ became President at 2:38 p.m. on November 22, 1963 while flying back to Washington from
Texas.
B/ THE SKILLED "CHIEF LEGISLATOR"
1. Veteran of 23 years in Congress
2. Served in both houses, powerful Senate Majority Leader in the late fifties
3. Populist background politically with tremendous admiration for FDR
4. Believe in the concept of "consensus politics" and was politically moderate in his views
5. When Johnson came to power, there were many that thought democracies could not move
forward -- the so-called "gridlock theory". Johnson set out to prove that false.
C/ PUSHING FORWARD THE KENNEDY AGENDA
1. Within his first months as President
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
22
a.
b.
c.
d.
Congress had approved $1.2 billion for college construction
Approval of mass transit bill
Legislation to protect wilderness areas
$11.5 billion tax cut -- the kind that Kennedy had proposed -- to which the
economy responded very positively
2. LBJ was first southerner in the White House since Andrew Johnson
3. Urges passage of Civil Rights Bill in memorial to Kennedy (Civil Rights Act of 1964)
a. Prohibited discrimination in public places
b. Authorized attorney general to bring suits to speed school desegregation
c. Strengthened voting rights for blacks
d. Set up the Equal Opportunity Commission
e. Empowered Federal agencies to withhold funds from states that
administered
programs that discriminated against blacks
II. CONTEXT AND RESULTS OF 1964 ELECTION
A/ JOHNSON'S WAR ON POVERTY
1. State of the Union Message (8 January, 1964): "This administration today, here and now,
declares unconditional war on poverty in America."
2. What did this mean? (A variety of initiatives)
a. Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
b. VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America)
c. Job Corps for school drop-outs
d. Upward Bound Program initiated
e. Operation "Head Start" initiated
f. Various community action programs for the poor
* Note: Several of these programs remain with us today. "Head Start", for example, is probably one
of the best known programs which survives from the Johnson period.
* The term "Great Society" was first used by Johnson in the spring of 1964 and came to denote the
full spectrum of social programs which Johnson pushed.
B/ JOHNSON'S OPPOSITION: GOLDWATER AND THE REPUBLICAN "RIGHT"
1. GOP had a tradition of "centrism" in terms of candidates
2. Goldwater of Arizona was aggressively speaking for the right wing of the party
a. Attempting to form a coalition of southern and western conservatives
b. Ronald Reagan (a democrat until the early 1960s) nominated Goldwater and that
speech launched the Reagan political career.
3. The Goldwater Agenda (What did the far right want?)
a. Opposed to federal legislation concerning civil rights
b. Opposed to TVA-type projects
c. Outspoken critic of the Social Security system
d. Militant foreign policy (opposition to the Test-Ban Treaty, for example)
e. Opposed to the Johnson "no-win" policy in Vietnam
f. "Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice." (Goldwater's credo)
4. Johnson is depicted as the "peace candidate" on the Vietnam issue
a. Goldwater's perceived threats of the use of nuclear force become an issue
b. Johnson, in fact, ordered retaliatory bombing in August of 1964, just months
before the election, in response to the Tonkin incident -- election year politics or what?
"We are not going to send American boys nine or ten thousand miles away from home to do
what Asian boys ought to be doing for themselves." (LBJ in 1964!)
C/ ELECTION OUTCOME IN PERSPECTIVE
1. Johnson wins by the biggest popular majority in American history (43-27 million); 486-52
in the Electoral College
2. Goldwater carried 6 states (all southern)
3. 90% of black vote went for Johnson
4. Congressional Elections?
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
23
a. Gave Democrats the greatest majority in Congress since the thirties (68-32 in
Senate and 295-140 in House -- up 37 seats)
b. Put a dent in the conservative coalition of southern Democrats and Republicans
III. JOHNSON AT FULL STEAM!
A/ THE "FABULOUS 89TH": GREATER THAN THE 73RD? (FDR's first)
1. By October of 1965, most of Johnson's program is a reality
a. Medicare
b. Federal aid for Elementary and Secondary ed
c. Creation of HUD
d. Highway Beautification Act
e. Voting Rights Act of 1965
2. Again, Johnson was further extending the programs initiated by Roosevelt during the
Depression -- keep in mind his formative years.
B/ JOHNSON AND THE BLACK'S RIGHT TO VOTE
1. The evolution of Voting Rights
a. Supreme Court's "one man-one vote" concept concerning representation and the
drawing of district boundaries (Baker v. Carr/ 1962)
b. 1964: 24th Amendment to the Constitution which curbed the use of the poll tax as
a method of stopping someone from voting
c. Voting Rights Act of 1965
(1) Provided for federal intervention to see that rights were not being
violated
(2) Particularly at issue was the problem of voter registration
2. Significant Gains?
a. Enforcement of Civil Rights statutes
b. Spectacular gains in deep south registration
c. More gains by blacks reaching public positions
IV. JOHNSON'S FATAL FLAW
A/ VIETNAM AND THE GREAT SOCIETY
1. Costs of the War: $28 billion per year
2. How to balance Cold War commitments with domestic priorities? The BIG QUESTION!
B/ THE ELECTION OF THE 90TH CONGRESS (1966)
1. Mid-term elections: Democrats lost 47 seats in the House and 3 in the Senate
2. Slashing of funds for "Great Society" programs
** In 1966, for example, more was spent on the Vietnam War than for the entire welfare program
C/ THE NATION DIVIDED: 1968 -- A "CRACK" IN TIME
1. Few doubted that Johnson would win another term
2. McCarthy's challenge brought out the anti-war message
3. Johnson' s withdrawal on 31 March, 1968
4. Enter Robert F. Kennedy
5. The terrible spring of 1968 -- a nation being torn apart on many fronts
** James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner, JFK, RFK, MLK, Medgar Evers, Malcolm X,
the four black girls killed by a bomb in Birmingham, Reverend James Reeb -- these were all political
murders during the period we are studying.
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24
Nixon to Watergate: 1969-1974
Basing his support on the conservative New Right coalition, Nixon actually broke from
Republican tradition in environmental protection, welfare reform, and finding solutions to
economic problems such as the severe inflation. Yet Nixon’s insecurity as president and his
abuse of executive power led to his downfall.
Nixon, "New Federalism," The Imperial Presidency: Nixon’s "New Federalism" promised to bring
back law and order to the United States by promoting conservatism and executive authority. The term
Imperial Presidency referred to Nixon’s efforts to acquire absolute control over his Presidency.
Agnew, Spiro T., his resignation: Vice President Agnew was charged with income-tax evasion and
accepting bribes. He pleaded no contest which was "the full equivalent to a plea of guilty," according
to the trial judge. Dishonored and distrusted, Agnew left the government service with a three-year
suspended sentence.
"revenue sharing": As part of Nixon’s "New Federalism," "revenue sharing" was a five year plan to
distribute $30 billion of federal revenues to the states. Congress passed it in 1972 in response to the
failing economy caused by the inflation, trade deficit, and massive spending during the 1960s.
wage and price controls: In response to the troubled American economy, Nixon declared a ninetyday freeze on wages, prices, and rents which would be followed by federally imposed controls setting
maximum annual increases of 5.5% for wages and 2.5% for prices and rents.
Nixon verses Congress: On July 27th, the House Judiciary Committee took in the first article of
impeachment. 6 out of 17 Republicans voted with the 21 Democrats to charge Nixon with interruption
of justice for controlling the Watergate investigation. The president had abused his power.
Committee for the Reelection of the President (CREEP): Nixon created CREEP to ensure every
vote for the election of 1972. Appointing attorney general John Mitchell as the head, CREEP financed
many "dirty tricks" to spread dissension within Democratic ranks and paid for a special internal
espionage unit to spy on the opposition.
Watergate: The scandal exposed the connection between the White House and the accused
Watergate burglars who had raided the Democrats’ headquarters during the 1972 campaign. The
election federal judge, Sirica, refused to accept the claim of those on trial that they had behaved on
their own terms.
election of 1972: Nixon’s reelection was assured. He relied on his diplomatic successes with China
and Russia and his strategy towards the winding down of the war in Vietnam to attract moderate
voters. He expected his southern strategy and law-and-order posture to attract the conservative
Democrats.
White House "plumbers": Led by Liddy and Hunt, this Republican undercover team obtained
approval by Mitchell to wire telephones at the Democractic National Committee headquarters in the
Watergate apartment/office complex. The operation was thwarted on June 17, 1972 by a security
guard; it would bring about the downfall of Nixon.
Watergate Tapes: Another Presidential rumor shocked the committee and the nation by revealing
that Nixon had put in a secret taping system in the White House that recorded all the conversations
between his enemies in the Oval Office. Both the Ervin committee and prosecutor Cox insisted to hear
the tapes, but Nixon refused.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
25
McGovern, Sen. George: George McGovern of South Dakota rose to fame on the energetic support
of antiwar activists rushing to the Democratic primaries. He was seen as inept and radical, but Nixon
was insecure about McGovern’s popularity; the senator contributed to Nixon’s downfall.
Muskie, Sen. Edmund: The campaign of Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine collapsed when he started
to cry in public while trying to respond to an accusation of prejudice against Canadian-Americans.
Muskie’s campaign was never a threat to Nixon’s reelection, but Nixon still feared him.
Haldeman, H.R., Ehrlichman, John, John Dean, John Mitchell: All were involved in the Watergate
scandal. Dean refused to cover up Nixon’s involvement in Watergate. Nixon fired Dean and Haldeman
and Erlichman who headed the White House Staff resigned. All three and former Attorney General
Mitchell were indicted on March 1974.
Impeachment proceeding: The most damaging to the President was when the hearings exposed the
White House’s active involvement in the Watergate cover-up. But the Senate still lacked concrete
evidence on the president’s criminality. Thus they could not impeach Nixon.
Twenty-fifth Amendment: Ratified in 1967, this amendment detailed the procedure by which the
vice president was to take over the presidency if the current president could not uphold his status in
office. It also limited the power given to the vice president from the incapacitated president.
Twenty-sixth Amendment: This amendment guaranteed the rights of those who were 18 years of
age or older to vote as citizens of the United States. It gave the power to Congress to enforce and
protect by appropriate legislation. The amendment allowed the politicians to listen to the voices of
younger people as voters.
Chicanos: Chicanos were segregated Mexican-Americans and also included Puerto Ricans. Assumed
as inferiors, they lacked all the civil liberties of citizenship. They typically worked in the agricultural
field as menial laborers and were unpaid and overcharged.
Cesar Chavez: As a Roman Catholic and a follower of King, Chavez worked to win rights for migrant
farmers. He is famous for a strike he organized with the help of grape pickers in California in 1965.
Chavez’s leadership brought guarantees of rights for the farmers. He was an important figure in the
Brown Power movement.
Burger, Warren -- appointed, 1969: Appointed in 1969, Warren Burger was to replace the old and
retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren. He was young and a new addition to the Nixon court; Nixon
appointed him to moderate the liberalism of the Warren court and its controversial decisions.
American Indian Movement (AIM), Wounded Knee: Native-Americans occupied Alcatraz Island in
San Francisco Bay in 1969, and Wounded Knee was their trading post site. The reason they defiantly
occupied Alcatraz Island was to protest their low status in America. They advocated Red Power and
demanded justice for past wrongs.
NARRATIVE EVALUATION: THE NIXON-FORD YEARS
Vice president under Eisenhower before his unsuccessful run for the presidency in 1960, Nixon was
seen as among the shrewdest of American politicians. Although Nixon subscribed to the Republican
value of fiscal responsibility, he accepted a need for government's expanded role and did not oppose
the basic contours of the welfare state. He simply wanted to manage its programs better. Not opposed
to African-American civil rights on principle, he was wary of large federal civil rights bureaucracies.
Nonetheless, his administration vigorously enforced court orders on school desegregation even as it
courted Southern white voters.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
26
Perhaps his biggest domestic problem was the economy. He inherited both a slowdown from its
Vietnam peak under Johnson, and a continuing inflationary surge that had been a by-product of the
war. He dealt with the first by becoming the first Republican president to endorse deficit spending as a
way to stimulate the economy; the second by imposing wage and price controls, a policy in which the
Right had no long-term faith, in 1971. In the short run, these decisions stabilized the economy and
established favorable conditions for Nixon's re-election in 1972. He won an overwhelming victory over
peace-minded Democratic Senator George McGovern.
Things began to sour very quickly into the president's second term. Very early on, he faced charges
that his re-election committee had managed a break-in at the Watergate building headquarters of the
Democratic National Committee and that he had participated in a cover-up. Special prosecutors and
congressional committees dogged his presidency thereafter.
Factors beyond Nixon's control undermined his economic policies. In 1973 the war between Israel and
Egypt and Syria prompted Saudi Arabia to embargo oil shipments to Israel's ally, the United States.
Other member nations of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) quadrupled
their prices. Americans faced both shortages, exacerbated in the view of many by over-regulation of
distribution, and rapidly rising prices. Even when the embargo ended the next year, prices remained
high and affected all areas of American economic life: In 1974, inflation reached 12 percent, causing
disruptions that led to even higher unemployment rates. The unprecedented economic boom America
had enjoyed since 1948 was grinding to a halt.
Nixon's rhetoric about the need for "law and order" in the face of rising crime rates, increased drug
use, and more permissive views about sex resonated with more Americans than not. But this concern
was insufficient to quell concerns about the Watergate break-in and the economy. Seeking to energize
and enlarge his own political constituency, Nixon lashed out at demonstrators, attacked the press for
distorted coverage, and sought to silence his opponents. Instead, he left an unfavorable impression
with many who saw him on television and perceived him as unstable. Adding to Nixon's troubles, Vice
President Spiro Agnew, his outspoken point man against the media and liberals, was forced to resign
in 1973, pleading "no contest" to a criminal charge of tax evasion.
Nixon probably had not known in advance of the Watergate burglary, but he had tried to cover it up,
and had lied to the American people about it. Evidence of his involvement mounted. On July 27, 1974,
the House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend his impeachment. Facing certain ouster from
office, he resigned on August 9, 1974.
THE FORD INTERLUDE
Nixon's vice president, Gerald Ford (appointed to replace Agnew), was an unpretentious man who had
spent most of his public life in Congress. His first priority was to restore trust in the government.
However, feeling it necessary to head off the spectacle of a possible prosecution of Nixon, he issued a
blanket pardon to his predecessor. Although it was perhaps necessary, the move was nonetheless
unpopular.
In public policy, Ford followed the course Nixon had set. Economic problems remained serious, as
inflation and unemployment continued to rise. Ford first tried to reassure the public, much as Herbert
Hoover had done in 1929. When that failed, he imposed measures to curb inflation, which sent
unemployment above 8 percent. A tax cut, coupled with higher unemployment benefits, helped a bit
but the economy remained weak.
In foreign policy, Ford adopted Nixon's strategy of detente. Perhaps its major manifestation was the
Helsinki Accords of 1975, in which the United States and Western European nations effectively
recognized Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe in return for Soviet affirmation of human rights. The
agreement had little immediate significance, but over the long run may have made maintenance of the
Soviet empire more difficult. Western nations effectively used periodic "Helsinki review meetings" to
call attention to various abuses of human rights by Communist regimes of the Eastern bloc.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
27
Post-Watergate and Carter: 1974-1981
Trying desperately to cope with the economic predicament spawned by OPEC, both Ford and
Carter dismally failed. In foreign affairs, Cold War tensions mounted as the Soviet Union
became increasingly annoyed with Carter’s rigorous standard of human rights.
Balance of trade, trade deficits: A U.S. economic report during the 1970s revealed that the nation
imported more than it exported; the balance of trade was thrown off and the economic experts
worried that the U.S. economy would not survive. As a result, Nixon began such programs as
"revenue sharing" and wage and price controls for regulation.
Ford, Gerald, Nixon Pardon: On Aug. 9, 1974, Ford became the first vice president to inherit
leadership of the nation after the president resigned. To put the nation forward, General Ford granted
pardon for ex-President Nixon. As a result, many people were angry that the government could easily
forgive corruption and dishonesty.
"STAGFLATION": As a combination of business stagnation and inflation, "stagflation" severely
worsened the American economy. When the government borrowed money to offset the drastic loss of
tax revenue, interest rates still increased. The federal government could not repay the loan, and it was
forced to find other methods to collect revenue. There was no simple solution to "stagflation;" to lower
interest rates to prevent stagnation would worsen the ongoing inflation.
SALT II: In June 1979, Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev agreed and signed the SALT II treaty.
Carter presented it to the Senate and they ratified it. Due to the invasion of Afghanistan by Russia,
the Cold War thaw slowed. The U.S.-Soviet relationship grew sour, and the U.S. boycotted the 1980
Summer Olympics in Moscow.
Election of 1976: Jimmy Carter was elected President of the United States in 1976. Climaxing a
remarkable rise to national fame, Carter had been governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975 and was
little known elsewhere at the beginning of 1976. Carter defeated Gerald Ford in the 1976 election.
Carter, Jimmy, Amnesty: Elected to the Presidency in 1976, Carter was an advocate of human
rights. He granted amnesty to countries that followed his foreign policy. They excluded nations which
violated Carter’s humane standards through cruel business practices.
Panama Canal Treaty: The Carter administration put together bargains on a number of treaties to
transfer the Panama Canal and the Canal Zone to the Panamanians by 1999. This treaty was met with
staunch opposition by Republicans who felt that they "stole it fair and square."
Camp David Accords: Camp David was a place where the Egyptian leader Anwar el-Sadat and the
Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin came together with Jimmy Carter. They discussed certain
negotiations and tried to hammer out a framework for a peace treaty for the Middle East. It
represented peace and harmony in the modern world.
WIN: To compensate for the economic predicament caused by OPEC and the crisis of energy
conservation, Jimmy Carter proposed an innovative economic program. WIN was to provide methods
for conserving energy by creating the Department of Energy and regulating consumption of gas by
automobiles.
Department of Energy: Carter created the Department of Energy and created an energy bill
including taxation on oil and gasoline, tax credits for those who found methods on saving money and
alternative-energy resources. It went well and the bill for energy consumption came down in 1978.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
28
NARRATIVE EVALUATION: THE CARTER YEARS
1977-1981
Jimmy Carter, former Democratic governor of Georgia, won the presidency in 1976. Portraying himself
during the campaign as an outsider to Washington politics, he promised a fresh approach to
governing, but his lack of experience at the national level complicated his tenure from the start. A
naval officer and engineer by training, he often appeared to be a technocrat, when Americans wanted
someone more visionary to lead them through troubled times.
In economic affairs, Carter at first permitted a policy of deficit spending. Inflation rose to 10 percent a
year when the Federal Reserve Board, responsible for setting monetary policy, increased the money
supply to cover deficits. Carter responded by cutting the budget, but cuts affected social programs at
the heart of Democratic domestic policy. In mid-1979, anger in the financial community practically
forced him to appoint Paul Volcker as chairman of the Federal Reserve. Volcker was an "inflation
hawk" who increased interest rates in an attempt to halt price increases, at the cost of negative
consequences for the economy.
Carter also faced criticism for his failure to secure passage of an effective energy policy. He presented
a comprehensive program, aimed at reducing dependence on foreign oil, that he called the "moral
equivalent of war." Opponents thwarted it in Congress.
Though Carter called himself a populist, his political priorities were never wholly clear. He endorsed
government's protective role, but then began the process of deregulation, the removal of
governmental controls in economic life. Arguing that some restrictions over the course of the past
century limited competition and increased consumer costs, he favored decontrol in the oil, airline,
railroad, and trucking industries.
Carter's political efforts failed to gain either public or congressional support. By the end of his term,
his disapproval rating reached 77 percent, and Americans began to look toward the Republican Party
again.
Carter's greatest foreign policy accomplishment was the negotiation of a peace settlement between
Egypt, under President Anwar al-Sadat, and Israel, under Prime Minister Menachem Begin. Acting as
both mediator and participant, he persuaded the two leaders to end a 30-year state of war. The
subsequent peace treaty was signed at the White House in March 1979.
After protracted and often emotional debate, Carter also secured Senate ratification of treaties ceding
the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000. Going a step farther than Nixon, he extended formal
diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China.
But Carter enjoyed less success with the Soviet Union. Though he assumed office with detente at high
tide and declared that the United States had escaped its "inordinate fear of Communism," his
insistence that "our commitment to human rights must be absolute" antagonized the Soviet
government. A SALT II agreement further limiting nuclear stockpiles was signed, but not ratified by
the U.S. Senate, many of whose members felt the treaty was unbalanced. The 1979 Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan killed the treaty and triggered a Carter defense build-up that paved the way for the huge
expenditures of the 1980s.
Carter's most serious foreign policy challenge came in Iran. After an Islamic fundamentalist revolution
led by Shiite Muslim leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini replaced a corrupt but friendly regime, Carter
admitted the deposed shah to the United States for medical treatment. Angry Iranian militants,
supported by the Islamic regime, seized the American embassy in Tehran and held 53 American
hostages for more than a year. The long-running hostage crisis dominated the final year of his
presidency and greatly damaged his chances for re-election.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
29
Reagan and Domestic Politics: 1981-1989
Reagan promulgated a program to restore U.S. prominence and honor globally, and fight
economic problems. He advocated a more laissez faire policy through a lessening of
government activism, taxes, spending, and restrictions on business.
ELECTION OF 1980: The election of 1980 included candidates such as Republican Ronald Reagan,
Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter, and John B. Anderson as the Independent candidate. The biggest
issue at the time was American foreign policy, and Ronald Reagan had a greater hand in that issue.
Ronald Reagan became the President of the United States in 1980 with the promise of ameliorating
the American economy against the forces of "stagflation."
Anderson, John: He was a Republican congressman from Illinois, and his running mate was Patrick J.
Lucey from Wisconsin. When he announced his candidacy, he was serving his 10th term in the U.S.
House of Representatives. He was known for his strong liberal statements and spoke well on complex
issues.
Economy Recovery Tax Act, 1981: Following his promise of bettering the U.S. economy, Reagan
proposed a 30% tax cut allowing the money supply to circulate. He liberalized business taxes and
decreased capital gains, gifts, inheritance taxes to encourage investments in a plunging economy.
REAGANOMICS: Also known as voodoo economics, George Bush named this new economic strategy
Reaganomics in the 1980 primary campaign. President Reagan believed that the government should
leave the economy alone. He hoped that it would run by itself. It was a return to the laissez faire
theory of Adam Smith, yet Reagan expanded his theory by advocating supply-side economics as a
method to solve the economic hardships.
Supply side economics: In contrast to Adam Smith’s belief in supply-and-demand, Reagan assumed
that if the economy provided the products and services, the public would purchase them.
Consequently, Reagan lowered income taxes to stimulate the economy by expanding the money
supply.
O’Connor, Sandra Day: She was a feminist who generally deplored Reagan’s programs. However,
she was delighted when he nominated her as the first woman justice on the U.S. Supreme Court.
Many people supported Reagan’s decisions in favor of women’s rights.
Three Mile Island: In 1979, a near catastrophe occurred at Three Mile Island when there was an
accident involving a nuclear power plant. Safety measures were taken so that a future incident would
not occur. The plants were placed far away to reduce the hazards of near fatal accidents.
Watt, James Secretary of Interior: James Watt received more than $400,000 for making several
calls to the Department of Housing and Urban Development officials. The people who had interceded
with the Department of Housing and Urban Development were paid hundreds of thousands of dollars
for federal subsides.
Love Canal, Niagara Falls, NY: In the 1970s and early 1980s, chemical wastes that had leaked from
a former disposal site threatened the health of residents in that area. Both the New York state
government and the federal government provided financial aid to help move families from the Love
Canal to other areas.
EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, OHSA: It was created in 1969 by President Nixon to
enforce government standards for water and the air quality for work safety. The Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) was also created to enforce the hygiene.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
30
"New Federalism" proposals, 1982: New Federalism proposed to reverse the flow of power and
resources from the states and communities to the state capital. The president proposed a revenue
sharing bill that transferred some federal revenues to the states and prominent cities.
Deregulation-AT&T, airlines, trucking: To reverse the flow of federal power, Reagan began to
deregulate governmental controls over such companies as AT&T, airlines, and trucking companies. He
reasoned government must take its "hands off" from the economy to encourage investments and free
enterprise.
NEH, National Endowment for Humanities: The National Endowment for Humanities was created
to further promote artistic and cultural development in the United States. This was targeted to
foreigners. The project revealed the full cultural spectrum of America.
Friedan, Betty The Second Stage, 1981: In her novel The Second Stage, Friedan stresses the need
to add family matters to the cause of women’s rights. She reasons no person should ignore such a
significant issue while focusing on female independence and advancement in society.
Defeat of the ERA: As the argument over the ERA and abortion went on more women got jobs in the
working industry. In the 1960s, 35% of women held jobs, but in 1988, 60% of women worked. Even
though women had children, 51% of them were working from day to day.
Election of 1984: Former Vice President Walter Mondale got the Democratic nomination over Jesse
Jackson, backed by minority groups, and Gary Hart, who appealed to the young. Reagan’s campaign
revolved around the optimistic slogan "It’s Morning in America" and he rode the tide of prosperity to a
decisive victory.
Ferraro, Geraldine: The first woman ever to be on the ticket of a major party, Ferraro was chosen by
Walter Mondale to be his Vice-Presidential candidate in 1984. However, her presence failed to win
Mondale the election, as a higher percentage of women voted republican in 1984 than in 1980.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome): First diagnosed in 1981, 97,000 cases were
reported in 1989. Originally concentrated among homosexual men, needle-sharing drug users, and
sex partners of high risk groups, the disease soon spread. AIDS prompted a change from the "free
love" attitude of the 1970s, to a "safe sex" attitude of the 1990s.
"MORAL MAJORITY": The Moral Majority was Jerry Falwell’s pro-Reagan followers who embraced the
new evangelical revival of the late seventies. The Moral Majority was politically active in targeting such
issues as abortion, homosexuality, pornography, and school prayer. They were strongly conservative,
anticommunist, and influential. The Moral Majority was started in 1979 as a secular political group,
and was finished as a political force by the late 1980s.
Vietnam Veteran’s Memorial, 1982: Constructed in 1982, the memorial is a black marble wall
sunken below ground level in Washington D.C.’s National Mall. On it are inscribed the names of all
Americans who died or were missing in action. It also includes a statue of three soldiers, located
nearby.
Agent Orange: Agent Orange was a chemical sprayed by U.S. planes on the jungles of Vietnam
during the war which caused the defoliation of trees and shrubs and made enemy positions more
visible. In the 1970s it was found that Agent Orange was harmful to humans. In 1984, manufacturers
agreed to pay veterans injured by the chemical.
The Challenger Disaster, 1986: The space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds into flight, killing
all aboard. The explosion was caused by a faulty seal in the fuel tank. The shuttle program was halted
while investigators and officials drew up new safety regulations, but was resumed in 1988 with the
flight of the Discovery.
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Tax Reform Act, 1986: In 1986, with the federal deficit exceeding $200 billion, Reagan proposed a
new, simplified tax system that lowered the taxes of individuals and corporate incomes. The tax
reform helped reduce the deficit by 1987, but the stock market crash in October 1987 made higher
taxes a necessity.
The "Teflon Presidency": Ronald Reagan’s popularity never seemed to change much despite the
scandals and failures of his presidency. He was called the Teflon president by some because nothing
would stick to him. Even with all the criticism, Reagan remained very popular and charismatic.
HUD scandals: In 1989, revelations surfaced that during Reagan’s administration, prominent
Republicans had been paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for interceding with the Department of
Housing and Development on behalf of developers seeking federal subsidies. Once again, Reagan’s
popularity was unaffected.
Bush I and the Domestic Scene: 1989-1993
With the disintegration of the Soviet empire, the Cold War which shaped U.S. policy for
nearly a half-century finally died. The threat of nuclear annihilation subsided and the
American public breathed a sigh of relief.
Black Monday, 1987, Stock Market crashes: The market had enjoyed incredible success for the
past five years and had tripled in size. On October 19, 1987, it fell 508 points in the largest single day
drop in history. Though it soon regained the loss and surged to new heights, the volatility and
uncertainty remained.
Jackson, Rev. Jesse, Rainbow Coalition: Jackson, once an associate of King, tried to build a
"rainbow coalition" of blacks, Hispanics, displaced workers, and other political outsiders to try to gain
nomination and election in 1984. Jackson ran several times for the presidency, but was not moderate
enough to gain popular approval.
Election of 1988--candidates, issues: Bush got the Republican nomination while Michael Dukakis
won the Democratic nomination over Jesse Jackson. Bush chose Quayle as his running mate for his
good looks. Taxes, crime, and personal appearance were the main issues in 1988. Bush won fairly
decisively on a negative campaign.
BUSH, GEORGE: Bush was Vice President under Reagan, and was president from 1989 to 1993. As
president, Bush was successful in areas of foreign relations. He eased relations with Russia, resisted
the Russian military’s attempted coup in 1991, and fought Saddam Hussein in the Persian Gulf. He
was not as successful in domestic affairs as the economy dwindled and the deficit rose; the effects of
the era of Reaganomics. Bush was defeated by Bill Clinton and Al Gore in the 1992 election.
Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act: Passed in 1986, the bill required the automatic unilateral slashing of
many budget items. These included many domestic and defense programs. The goal of the bill was to
reduce the enormous debt of the Reagan years and to have a balanced budget by the year 1991.
national debt triples from 1980 to 1989, 908 billion to 2.9 trillion: In an effort to re-stimulate
the economy, Reagan’s administration increased defense spending drastically while lowering taxes.
The debt skyrocketed during his term. His philosophy of supply-side economics, or heavy spending in
the corporate sector, was a contributing factor.
Clean Air Act, 1990 (also one in 1970): President Bush sponsored the bill, which set stricter
regulations on many airborne pollutants. The act was aimed at reducing the chemicals which cause
acid rain, smog, ozone damage and many airborne carcinogens. The act was a cornerstone in pollution
regulation legislation.
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Bennett, William J., "drug czar"--Office of National Drug Control Policy: Bennett was chosen
as "drug czar" by Bush in response to national concerns about drugs. His job was to coordinate federal
programs against drugs, and his first target was the violent drug lords of Washington, D.C.
Family Support Act, 1988, "work fare": This Act tried to reform the welfare system. It contained
strict work and child support guidelines. Some of its provisions required women on welfare to work if
they have no children under 3 years old, and parents without custody could have child support
payments withheld from their paychecks.
MTV: MTV was part of the "cable revolution." Cable TV became a fixture in many U.S. households,
leading to the rise of smaller networks. Once was dominated by ABC, NBC, and CBS, now stations like
CNN, FOX, and MTV were legitimate contenders. MTV specifically became an important marketing tool
for music and politics.
1991 Civil Rights Act: The act allowed women, people with handicaps, and religious minorities to
collect punitive damages for intentional on-the-job discrimination. Previously, only racial minorities
could claim damages. It widened the definition of discrimination and forced businesses to respect
citizens’ rights of equality.
Thomas, Clarence, Supreme Court, Anita Hill: Thomas, the second black justice on the Court, was
nominated and seated in 1991. His nomination was plagued with controversy due to sexual
harassment allegations by Anita Hill, a former associate. The charges were dismissed in a series of
highly public congressional hearings.
baby-boom generation hits middle age: Once called the "Me Generation," people of the 1980s
were interested with personal over public concerns. The "yuppie" was a person preoccupied with
physical fitness, money, and materialism. TV’s, VCRs, and personal computers were common.
gentrification: Reversing the trend of the middle-class exodus from urban centers, yuppies bought
run-down apartments and town houses in poorer districts and fixed them up. The process often came
at the expense of poorer and older residents, including a great number of elderly citizens.
increased Asian, Hispanic immigration: 45% of immigrants since 1960 have been from the
Western Hemisphere, and 30% have come from Asia, signaling a new pattern of immigration. The
issue of illegal immigration became a hot topic politically, especially in the south west and west. Many
bills were passed in an attempt to limit immigration.
"gridlock," Congress vs. the President: Because a Democratic President and a Republican
Congress were elected in 1992, both had the power to obstruct the other. This "gridlock" occurred
midway through Clinton’s term. Unable to resolve a dispute, many government projects and parks
were closed down for several weeks.
APUSH READING NOTES
THE REAGAN-BUSH ERA: 1981-1993
OVERVIEW
Ronald Reagan, in many respects, changed the political landscape of America. He was the first twoterm President since Eisenhower and left office with a high approval rating in 1989. He is certainly the
dominant political figure of the 1980s, along with Gorbachev and Thatcher. He will be remembered
for a number of reasons, but most importantly, his election meant a fundamental reexamination of the
functions and responsibilities of the federal government. What is the government supposed to do? Is
the government manageable? How is government to fulfill its constitutional command that it
"promote the general welfare?" What is the "general welfare?" Taking a very long view, one can
argue that Reagan challenged many of the assumptions associated with liberalism and the New Deal
welfare state. George Bush was Reagan’s V-P and was considered more moderate than Reagan. His
election in 1988 is often viewed as the “third” Reagan election. He served for four years and was
unable to hold the office in the face of the Clinton challenge in 1992.
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I.
THE 1980 ELECTION
A. THREE GREAT ISSUES FOR CARTER
1. Inflation
2. The Hostage Crisis (444 days)
3. The appearance of "indecisiveness"
B. THEMES OF THE CAMPAIGN
1. Carter touted his foreign policy successes (i.e. the Camp David Accords) and stressed
Reagan's liabilities -- a return to the era of "states' rights" and the risk of pronounced
militarism.
2. Reagan stressed his mantra of "government being the problem" not the solution, the need for
a stronger defense posture, the "discomfort index" (inflation + unemployment = more than
25), the need to balance the federal budget, and his willingness to make sizeable cuts in
government spending.
C. THE KENNEDY CHALLENGE
1. Kennedy disliked Carter and viewed him as an outsider
2. The Senator mounted an anti-Carter campaign at the Democratic Convention which seriously
hurt the sitting President
D. ENTER JOHN ANDERSON
1. Anderson, a former Republican Congressman from Illinois, mounted a vocal third party
candidacy, foreshadowing a third party movement that would continue throughout the 1980s
and 1990s.
2. Anderson was a fiscal conservative and social liberal and he argued that the two major parties
were too captive to special interest groups to tackle the difficult issues of the day.
E. ELECTION OUTCOME
1. Reagan wins 50.75% of the popular vote, Carter 41.02%, and Anderson 6.61%.
2. 53% voter turnout
3. Reagan wins the Electoral College vote 489-49.
4. Republicans gain 33 seats in the House, cutting into the Democratic Party's hold on that body
(243-192, and Republicans gain 12 seats in the Senate to take control of that body (53-47).
This was the biggest mid-term gains by either party since 1958.
5. Reagan's coalition included some traditionally Democratic voters (so-called "Reagan
Democrats"). The Democratic Party leaves the election of 1980 fractured and bruised.
II.
PERSONAL BACKGROUND: RONALD WILSON REAGAN
A. EARLY LIFE
1. Born in 1911 in Tampico, Illinois
2. Generally humble background -- father an alcoholic in search of work throughout much of
Reagan's early life.
3. Attended school in Dixon, Illinois (an "All-American" boy)
4. Attended Eureka College in Illinois, graduating in 1932
5. Sports Announcer for the Chicago Cubs from 1932-37.
B. PERFORMING CAREER AND MILITARY STINT
1. First film: "Love is on the Air" in 1937
2. Most famous film in 1940: "Knute Rockne: All American” (remember the Gipper?)
3. Altogether Reagan made 50 movies, mostly in the "B" category, including "Hellcats of the
Navy" in which he played opposite his future wife, Nancy Davis.
4. His performing career stretched from 1937-1964. His familiarity with the public, of course,
made him a natural for the political arena.
5. He served in the Army Air Force from 1942-45 and was primarily involved with making
training films.
6. Union Leadership: He served as President of the Screen Actors Guild from 1947-52 and 195960. He was on the front lines during the black days of the McCarthy "witch hunts" of the early
1950s. Generally perceived as a successful union leader.
7. Marriages: His first wife was Jane Wyman (1940-48). They had two children, Maureen and
Michael. His second wife is Nancy Davis (1952-present). They also had two children, Patty
and Ron, Jr.
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8. Years as a TV Star: 1954-65. He hosted the General Electric Theater, a popular program that
brought him a great deal of attention. He also was a regular on "Death Valley Days" -- a
western -- and this cemented his image in many minds as the "cowboy."
C. POLITICAL EVOLUTION AND THE RISE TO POWER
1. Reagan originally was a New Deal Democrat and, in fact, voted for FDR in 1932 at the age of
32.
2. He campaigned for Truman in 1948.
3. During the 1950s, he became increasingly conservative in his views. Though remaining a
Democrat, he campaigned for Ike in both 1952 and 56.
4. In 1960, he headed up a group known as "Democrats for Nixon"
5. In 1962, he formally switched his party allegiance and began to be more involved in California
politics.
6. The Goldwater candidacy of 1964 was Reagan's first big moment politically. His nominating
speech of Goldwater at the Republican convention, coupled with his fund-raising speech ("the
speech") made him an instant hit among conservatives.
7. In 1966 he won the governorship of California and was re-elected in 1970.
8. Conventional wisdom: First term as governor is often considered a mess, the second term
quite successful. In many respects, he represents or symbolizes the "establishment" in the
late 1960s vs. the disaffected youth (especially in southern California!).
9. He is a minor Presidential candidate in 1968, a somewhat more important player in 1976.
During this period, however, the moderate wing of the Republican Party holds sway, and his
time is yet to come.
III.
THE REAGAN POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
A. CONSERVATISM DEFINED
1. By most estimates, Reagan is the most purely conservative President since Hoover. The first
picture Reagan hung in the Cabinet Room, interestingly enough, was that of Calvin Coolidge.
Bear in mind that Reagan would have been in his teens while Cool Cal was in the White House.
2. By 1964, Reagan is clearly identified with the right wing of the Republican Party. He will be
highly successful at garnering the support of both the fiscal and social conservatives within the
Party.
B. REAGAN'S THEMES
1. Government is the problem, not the solution!
2. We must reduce the size of the federal system! He believed that the "New Dealism" of the
1930s and beyond had led to a bloating of the system by the mid-1950s.
3. We must return power to the states! (New Federalism) This accent on "decentralization" is a
trademark of the Reagan years. Governors like Tommy Thompson will be part of this
movement. Ironically, this emphasis on "state power" will spawn a new wave of reform
governors across the country --- like William Clinton in Arkansas!
4. Taxes must be reduced and the budget balanced!
5. Defense spending must be increased!
6. Reagan also had a series of "pet issues" that he spoke of continually, yet never really was able
to "sell": the line-item veto, prayer in schools, putting a stop to abortion, for example.
C. THE "REAGAN PERSONALITY"
1. His humor and extreme self-confidence endeared him to many
2. Somewhat appealing to the "anti-intellectual" crowd in the sense that he had a somewhat
"homespun" appeal. He certainly did not possess, for example, the intellectual appeal of
Richard Nixon or Woodrow Wilson.
3. According to many historians, Reagan is the most "thoroughly ideological" President of the
modern period.
4. His personality naturally created a leadership style similar to Ike.
5. His age, of course, is an important factor here: He was 15 years old when Coolidge was in
office, 22 when FDR was first elected, 41 when Ike was first elected, 50 by the time Kennedy
was in office, 63 when Nixon resigned, 69 when first elected, and nearly 78 years old when he
left office.
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** Note: Historian Teddy White points out that the landslide elections since WW II have primarily
marked Republicans as the winner. There have been 6 (52, 56, 64, 72, 80, 84) and 5 of those
were Republican victories -- one of them a very direct repudiation of the incumbent -- 1980.
IV.
THE REAGAN ADMINISTRATION
A. KEY PLAYERS
1. VP: George Bush (Reagan's erstwhile opponent in 1980)
2. Secretary of State: Alexander Haig until 1982, George Schultz for the remainder
3. Secretary of Treasury: James Baker (one of the "Big Three" along with Deaver and Meese)
4. Secretary of Defense: Caspar Weinberger and Carlucci
5. Attorney General: Smith until 1985, Meese for the remainder
6. Education: Terrell Bell until 1985, William Bennett for the remainder
7. Chief of Staff: Don Regan first, then Howard Baker
8. Head of the Office of Management and Budget: David Stockman
9. National Security Advisor(s): Several here. McFarlane, Poindexter, eventually Colin Powell.
The first two mentioned become embroiled in Iran-Contra.
V.
THE REAGAN "AGENDA"
A. ECONOMIC PROGRAM: "REAGANOMICS"
1. Reagan was an advocate of "supply-side" theory which essentially meant two things:
Significant reductions in federal spending coupled with a major tax cut. The thinking behind
this model, first advocated by JFK in 1961, is that the tax cut would stimulate consumer
spending, thereby spurring economic growth. Additionally, of course, cuts in government
spending would be fiscally responsible in terms of dealing with the national debt.
2. The largest tax cut in American history was passed, then, in 1981: The Economic Recovery
Tax Act of 1981 (30% reduction)
3. The Recession of 1981: Bankruptcies, soaring unemployment (11% by 1982), loss of tax
revenues placed this tax cut in "doubt"
4. In 1982, the government passed the largest tax increase in American history to attempt to
reverse the situation -- answering the need for increasing revenues.
B. INCREASED DEFENSE SPENDING
1. Increased defense spending had begun during that last year of the Carter Administration.
2. During Reagan's tenure, we would have the largest increase in defense spending in peacetime
ever in our history ($1.9 trillion over 8 years)
3. The defense spending, simultaneous with the initial tax cut, of course, meant soaring deficits
(George Bush, ironically enough, had attacked Reagan on this issue during the 1980
primaries, calling it "voodoo economics" and warning of the deficit!).
VI.
THE SECOND TERM
A. THE ELECTION OF 1984
1. Mondale/ Ferraro vs. Reagan/Bush
2. Mondale spoke openly of the need for a tax increase, committing political suicide
3. 1984 will be a huge landslide for Reagan. He wins by over 17 million votes and 525 to 13 in
the Electoral College!
B. DOMESTIC AGENDA: 1985-89
1. Consistency and continuation of major themes of first term
2. Priorities that gained much attention after 1984: Expansion of Medicare to include
"catastrophic health insurance"/ Strengthening the Social Security Trust Fund/ Simplification
of the Tax Code (1986 Tax Reform Act).
TRANSITION
President Reagan enjoyed unusually high popularity ratings at the end of his second term, but
because of the 22nd Amendment, could not run again in 1988. His political heir -- George H.W. Bush - benefited from the Reagan popularity and was elected 41st President of the United States.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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VII.
ECONOMIC BACKDROP: WHAT HAPPENED IN THE 1980s?
A. LONG-TERM IMPACT OF REAGAN'S POLICIES
1. Recall the concept of "supply-side" economics
2. The Recession of 1982 and beyond
a. GNP fell by 2.5% in '82/ Unemployment rose to above 10%
b. Nearly 1/3 of America's industrial plants lay idle
c. Farmers suffered mightily
3. Upside: Inflation came under control for the first time in several years
4. By 1983-84 (heading into election year), some sectors of the economy were rebounding
5. US began a period of strong economic growth (through 1987)
a. On the surface this looked good
b. Much of the growth, however, was based on increased deficit spending
c. The national debt tripled while Reagan was at the helm
d. The situation of the poor and lower middle class deteriorated, in spite huge increases in
wealth for the upper class
e. Recall that this is also a period of huge defense spending increases
f. The dramatic "crash" of the Stock Market in 1987 signaled lowered confidence in the
economy
ANALYSIS: Bush profited from the Reagan economic trends in the short run (as in, getting elected)
but was truly hurt by some of the long-term implications of the growing deficits (both the national
debt and the trade deficit).
VIII. BUSH AND THE ELECTION OF 1988
A. STATUS QUO WAS THE MESSAGE
1. Bush campaigned promising a continuation of the prosperity that Reagan had brought
2. Dukakis argued that the less fortunate in society were hurting badly and that the government
had to curb defense spending and reduce the debt
3. Bush made his famous "Read My Lips, No New Taxes" pledge in the campaign and it became
the "mantra" for his Presidency
B. BUSH LOSES THE RIGHT WING: THE 1990 BUDGET DEBATE
1. During his first year in office, Bush followed a conservative fiscal program and remained
faithful to the Reagan approach
2. With a growing deficit and a deficit-reduction law in place (Gramm-Rudman-Hollings), Bush
became somewhat trapped in a situation where no new spending programs could be passed
AND spending cuts would have to be made.
3. He pursued policies that "strayed" from the Reagan plan somewhat -- i.e. he signed a
sweeping environmental bill that imposed new federal standards on urban smog, auto
exhaust, toxic air pollution and acid rain, but most of the costs were assigned to the polluter
themselves. He also signed a far reaching law related to physical access for the disabled, but
most costs, again, were transferred to businesses. He greatly encouraged a campaign of
volunteerism ("thousand points of light") for social beneficence.
4. THE ECONOMIC DEAL OF 1990
a. Gaining effective control of the deficit became a major problem for Bush
b. The long-term impact of the "Savings and Loan" Crisis of the mid to late 1980s was being
dramatically felt. Fraud, mismanagement, lax regulation, and economic downturns in
certain areas of the country led to widespread insolvencies in the S and L industry. The
federal government was left "holding the bag" so to speak (multi billion dollar pricetag)
c. From January through June of 1990, Bush got locked into a major budget battle with the
Congress. He agreed, to the chagrin of his fellow Republicans, to a significant tax
increase, reversing his pledge from the campaign.
5. BUDGETARY WOES OF 1991 AND 1992
a. A combination of economic recession, losses incurred from the S and L situation, and
escalating health care costs for Medicare and Medicaid offset any significant deficit
reduction.
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b.
IX.
1992 was a "pessimistic" year for many Americans, which of course, tends to work against
any incumbent. Bush faced an economy that was mired in recession and a mounting
federal deficit. Many felt a change in direction was needed.
THE BUSH FOREIGN POLICY (I’m including this here even though we will have dealt with it in
our unit on Foreign Policy)
A. PANAMA: December 20, 1989
1. Bush received broad bi-partisan support for the brief US invasion of Panama
2. The goal of the invasion was the deposing of Manuel Noriega
3. The "crack" cocaine addiction of the 1980s became a centerpiece of Bush's domestic focus
(the "war on drugs")
4. The US had compelling evidence that Noriega was involved in drug smuggling operations
5. Although getting rid of Noriega was the biggest motive for the invasion, Bush also cited that
we were going in to safeguard the lives of US citizens living in Panama (we still controlled the
Canal) and to restore democracy.
6. Noriega eventually turned himself in to US authorities, was tried, and found guilty of drug
trafficking and racketeering.
B. DEALING WITH THE SOVIET UNION
1. Turmoil in Eastern Europe was driving US policy with the Soviets at this point
2. Democratic reforms and the overthrow of Soviet-installed regimes happened almost overnight
and Bush was the first President that had to confront that situation
3. Bush and Gorbachev had met in 1989 (Malta). Building on the negotiations that had begun
under Reagan, Bush and Gorby moved successfully on several fronts.
a. Bush announced in January of 1990 that the US would cut its troop strength in Europe to
195,000 (down from as many as 500,000 during the height of the Cold War)
b. By late 1990, the Soviets accepted the notion of a unified Germany with full German
membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
c. On July 31, 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed START I which mandated cuts of 30-40% in
the nuclear arsenals of both sides
4. Bush and Yeltsin
a. In almost breathtaking fashion, the Soviet Union ceased to exist in 1991 and was replaced
by the Russian Federation. Boris Yeltsin was the leader of the new entity.
b. Bush and Yeltsin continued the arms negotiations initiated in the START Process
C. THE GULF WAR (We will deal with this separately)
D. NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA)
1. Trade agreement negotiated with Mexico and Canada
2. The central notion was to pursue "free and open markets" across borders
3. Initiated intense ratification debate that carried over to Clinton
The Rise of Bill Clinton: 1993-2001
ELECTION OF 1992—candidates, issues, Ross Perot: The election of 1992 was primarily between
the Democrat Bill Clinton and the Republican incumbent George Bush. Ross Perot, of the Independent
party, did well in early polls, dropped out of the running, then returned near November with much less
support. The major issues were the state of the economy, which had taken a turn for the worse at the
end of the Bush administration, the state of medical insurance, and Bush’s record of foreign
diplomacy.
bombing of World Trade Center: In 1993, a bomb in a parking structure of the World Trade Center
Building in New York killed six and injured nearly 1000 people. Officials later arrested militant Muslim
extremists who condemned American actions towards Israel and the U.S. involvement in the Persian
Gulf War.
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Whitewater: A scandal which has plagued Bill and Hillary Clinton while in the White House, the
Whitewater affair revolves around the question if the Clinton’s benefited improperly from their
involvement in a real estate venture, the Whitewater Development Corp. Investigators began
searching for incriminating evidence.
Clinton’s health plan: Clinton’s dream of universal health care package died as the bill could not get
approval by resistant Republicans. The bill would have required employers to pay 80% of their
employees’ medical costs, among other major changes. Several compromises were attempted by
Clinton, but the issue was dead by September 1994.
"greenhouse effect": The large amount of fossil fuels burned by cars, homes, and factories has led
to a rise in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide traps heat near the
surface of the planet, raising its temperature. The problem is made worse by tropical deforestation,
and has become a major environmental concern.
1994 Congressional election: The Republican Party, capitalizing on Clinton’s perceived inactivity,
gained a majority in Congress. More than 300 GOP candidates signed a "Contract with America"
pledging support of several popular initiates. Gingrich authored the contract and became Speaker of
the House. Dole became the Senate majority leader.
Oklahoma City bombing, 1995: On April 19, 1995 a 2½ ton bomb exploded in front of the Alfred P.
Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. The blast destroyed the front section of the building, killing
68; of whom 19 were children. Officials Terry Nichols and Timothy McVeigh were right wing militant
extremists angry at the government.
Million Man March, 1995, Farrakhan: Led by the radical Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan, a
major rally for African-Americans was held in Washington DC. Farrakhan preached the need for blacks
to become active family and community members. Officials estimated 400,000-837,000 black men
came. Women were discouraged from attending.
budget showdown between Congress and the President: Negotiations between President Clinton
and Congress regarding balancing the budget wrapped up in May 1997. Republicans had originally
wanted a constitutional amendment specifying a balanced budget, but Clinton resisted. The agreed
upon plan is a moderate compromise.
APUSH: THE CLINTON YEARS: DOMESTIC HISTORY --- 1993-2001
We are too close to the Clinton era to have a clear perspective on how he will be judged as a leader.
The following narrative account of the Clinton years is largely drawn from the PBS series on the
American Presidency.
CLINTON: THE "NEW DEMOCRAT"
WHO IS BILL CLINTON?
William Jefferson Clinton, the young president from Hope, Arkansas, succeeded where no other
Democrat had since FDR: he was reelected to a second term. Clinton also defied his critics by
surviving an array of personal scandals for infidelity, turning the greatest deficit in American history
into a surplus, effectively using American troops to stop the murderous "ethnic cleansing" civil wars in
Bosnia and Kosovo, and presiding over the greatest level of economic prosperity since the early
1960s. Clinton achieved these successes despite unrelenting personal attacks from the right-wing of
the Republican Party, the loss of Congress to the Republicans for the first time in forty years, and a
humiliating but unsuccessful impeachment trial by the U.S. Senate. He fashioned himself as a "New
Democrat" and has frequently been referred to as the "Comeback Kid." Few presidents have suffered
more humiliating public abuse, caused more damage to the prestige of the presidency, or presided
over a longer period of sustained prosperity.
PS RYKKEN DOMESTIC HISTORY 1945-PRESENT
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THE ROAD TO THE WHITE HOUSE
Bill Clinton, whose father died a few months before he was born, always wanted to be president. Born
in 1946, he attended public schools in Little Rock, Arkansas, after moving there from Hope. As a boy
he was obsessed with politics, winning student elections at high school and later at Georgetown
University in Washington, D.C. Working on the staff of Arkansas Senator William Fulbright and
attending Oxford University as a Rhodes Scholar strengthened his resolve for a political career. After
graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton taught law at the University of Arkansas prior to running for
state attorney general and then for Arkansas governor; thirty-two years old at that time, he was the
youngest governor in the nation and in Arkansas history. After losing his bid for reelection, Clinton
came back to win four terms, positioning himself for a shot at the Democratic nomination for president
in 1992. Clinton defeated President Bush in 1992 after besting a field of fellow Democrats for the
nomination. As president, Clinton vowed to focus on economic issues like a "laser beam," especially
the high deficit and sluggish growth of the American economy. He also vowed to remake the
Democratic Party by advocating for issues supported by the middle class such as government
spending to stimulate the economy, tough crime laws, jobs for welfare recipients, and tax reform that
burdened the rich. At the same time, Clinton stood firm on certain traditional liberal goals such as
reduced military expenditures, gun controls, legalized abortion, affirmative action programs, national
health insurance, and gay rights.
CONTROVERSY, SCANDAL, AND SUCCESS
Clinton stumbled badly in his first term when his complex health care reform initiative, spearheaded
by First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, was overwhelmingly rejected by Congress. By 1996, Republicans
had launched an aggressive attack on Clinton—funded by right-wing political action committees—that
delivered Republican majorities in both houses of Congress for the first time since 1955. Clinton
fought back by capitalizing on Republican blunders and the nearly fanatical attacks lashed at him by
his conservative opponents. When Clinton refused to sign a highly controversial budget passed by the
Republican-controlled Congress, he looked strong and resolute. Congress then forced a shut down of
government to pressure Clinton to back down, but Clinton remained firm, and the opposition caved in.
Most Americans blamed Congress for the gridlock rather than Clinton, and decisively reelected him to
office in 1996.
Clinton suffered two major setbacks during his administration. The first was his failure to obtain health
care reform. The second, and much more damaging to his place in history, was his impeachment by
the House of Representatives on charges of having lied under oath and having obstructed justice in
the attempted cover-up of his affair with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. The impeachment
issue grew out of an independent counsel’s so-called Whitewater investigation of Clinton's financial
dealings in Arkansas. It peaked just prior to the midterm elections in 1998. The American people
cared less about the president's marital affairs or his long-ago financial dealings than it did about his
success in reducing deficits and obtaining economic prosperity. The Republicans lost seats in the
House, and the Senate thereafter failed to convict Clinton on the impeachment charges. Nor was the
special prosecutor able to link either the president or the First Lady to criminal activities in the
Whitewater investigation.
In foreign affairs, Clinton scored high marks for his role in brokering peace negotiations in Northern
Ireland between warring Catholics and Protestants, for overseeing peace talks between Israel and the
Palestine Liberation Organization, and for his decisive steps to end a murderous military dictatorship in
Haiti. His leadership of NATO bombings in Bosnia and Kosovo—and his willingness to send ground
troops as soldiers and peace keepers—forced the government of Serbia to end its murderous attacks
on Muslims in Bosnia, as well as on ethnic Albanians within the borders of its Kosovo region.
POLITICAL PARTNERSHIP
Clinton's partner in his political career and marriage, Hillary Rodham Clinton, emerged as a key player
in his administration. A brilliant woman who supported and advised the president on most issues of his
administration, her popularity had plummeted after her failure to achieve health care reform in
Clinton’s first term. However, she emerged from the Monica Lewinsky affair with very high popularity
ratings in his second term.
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Clinton's presidency, despite having greatly tarnished the office, did succeed in achieving most of his
promised goals, especially on the economic front and in the remaking of the Democratic Party. Future
history books may well begin by noting that William Clinton was the second president to have been
impeached by the U.S. House of Representatives. However, they will also note his amazing ability to
survive and to substantially impact the politics, policies, and programs of the United States for most of
the 1990s.
OVERVIEWING DOMESTIC AFFAIRS
Bill Clinton began his presidency promising to focus "like a laser beam" on the economic needs of the
nation: unemployment, the runaway deficit, the health care crisis, and welfare reform. On all fronts
but one—health care reform, he succeeded significantly but not completely.
FULFILLING CAMPAIGN PROMISES
By the end of his first term, Clinton had battled Congress to secure adoption of an economic package
that combined tax increases (which fell mainly on the upper class) and spending cuts (which hurt
mainly impoverished American). This economic policy lowered the deficit from $298 billion in 1992 to
$203 billion by 1994. By the end of his second term, surging tax revenues due to a booming economy
had cut the deficit to $25 billion in 1999. A massive budget surplus was predicted in the year 2000—a
reality no one in the nation would have thought possible in 1992, and surpluses amounting to $1.5
trillion were projected for the first decade of the 21st century. Equally important were the pace of
economic growth and low inflation. Combined with historically unprecedented low interest and
unemployment rates, these factors positioned America's economy as the strongest and most robust in
the world as the nation prepared to enter the new century.
On many issues, like passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which cleared
Congress in 1993, Clinton essentially had endorsed Republican programs, and benefited from
Republican support. On others, like welfare reform, the Republican controlled Congress accepted
Clinton's lead in publicizing the issues, but dominated the writing of the bills creating the actual
programs. In the summer of 1996, Congress passed a sweeping reform bill that fulfilled Clinton's 1992
campaign promise to "end welfare as we know it." The legislation replaced the long standing Aid for
Dependent Children program with a system of block grants to individual states. It also dropped the
eligibility of legal immigrants for welfare assistance during the first five years of their residency.
Furthermore, Clinton won an increase in the minimum wage to $5.15 per hour, the first hike since
1991. The president blocked Republican attempts to bar public education to children of illegal
immigrants.
Hoping to move dramatically on all fronts, Clinton made several decisions early on in his presidency
that tarnished his image among supporters and opponents alike. Fulfilling a campaign pledge, Clinton
issued an executive order ending the exclusion of homosexuals from military service. When a storm of
protest emerged and Congress threatened to pass a law restoring the ban, he backed off. The
president came up with a compromise military policy of "Don't ask, don't tell," meaning that the
military services would not ask the sexual orientation of service personnel, and these personnel in turn
would not have to volunteer information. This halfway policy alienated liberals and gays who felt that
their rights were not protected but also upset much of the officer corps that did not want gays to be
allowed to serve.
Clinton also looked weak and indecisive when he withdrew the names of two female nominees for
attorney general because they had violated immigration laws in hiring household employees. The
president's image problem was further compounded when he retracted the nomination of Lani Guinier,
an African American law professor and an old personal friend, to head the Civil Rights Commission.
Guinier's nomination was jeopardized when it was discovered that she had written an essay defending
a complex "multiple vote" system that would ensure the election to legislatures of more members of
minority groups, rather than the one person, one vote doctrine.
CABINET AND STAFF APPOINTMENTS
In his campaign in 1992 Clinton had promised to form a cabinet "that looked like America." On the
road to fulfilling this pledge, the president stumbled badly with the attorney general nomination and
quick withdrawal of a Connecticut lawyer named Zoe E. Baird. Baird came under criticism for having
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failed to pay taxes for a Peruvian couple that she had hired as domestic workers. He then attempted
to win confirmation of federal judge Kimba Wood, but she too had not handled her domestic help
properly. Clinton finally settled on Florida prosecutor Janet Reno for that position. Clinton named three
other women to cabinet level positions: Madeline K. Albright (appointed in 1997 to replace Warren M.
Christopher) as secretary of state—she had first served as Clinton's ambassador to the United
Nations; Donna E. Shalala, chancellor of the University of Wisconsin, as secretary of health, education,
and welfare; and African American Hazel O'Leary as secretary of energy.
The president also put women at the helm of sub-cabinet posts. His campaign media manager Dee
Dee Myers was appointed as press secretary and California economist Laura D'Andrea Tyson became
chairperson of the Council of Economic Advisers. Florida environmental official Carol Browner—also Al
Gore's one-time legislative assistant—was appointed to the top position of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Additionally, Dr. Joycelyn Elders, an African American who was serving as the
Arkansas health director, became U.S. surgeon general. And when Supreme Court justice Byron White
retired in 1993, Clinton named Ruth Bader Ginsberg as his replacement; Ginsberg was a federal
appeals court judge who had taught at Columbia Law School and pioneered litigating cases of sex
discrimination.
Included too in top administrative posts were several minority males. Clinton appointed several
African Americans to high level posts, including Democratic National Chairman Ronald H. Brown, as
secretary of commerce; former Mississippi Congressman Mike Espy as secretary of agriculture; Jesse
Brown, a disabled Marine veteran who ran the Disabled American Veterans office in Washington, as
secretary of veterans affairs; and Clifton Wharton, Jr., chairman of the $112 billion Teachers
Insurance and Retirement Equities Fund, as deputy secretary of state. Latinos were also appointed in
more substantial numbers than in previous administrations, including former San Antonio, Texas,
Mayor Henry G. Cisneros as secretary of housing and urban development and Federico Peña as
secretary of transportation.
HEALTH CARE REFORM
Along with the political scandals that plagued his presidency, Clinton failed to achieve what he had
promised would be the major goal of his administration: affordable health care insurance for every
American in the nation. Clinton felt passionately about the fact that 41 million Americans did not have
health insurance. The United States was the only developed industrial nation in the world without a
universal health care system. Also, health care costs had skyrocketed since the 1970s, consuming one
seventh of the nation's goods and services—far more than that of any other modern country in the
world. Winning a national health package would enable Clinton to have an enormous impact on the
course of the nation, in much the same fashion as Franklin D. Roosevelt had in initiating Social
Security and unemployment insurance. In the minds of many, Clinton's health care proposals would
be the most massive, important social legislation in all of American history.
Politically, the consequences of health care reform were simply enormous. If health care costs could
be controlled, a major part of the nation's staggering economic deficit would be harnessed. Equally
important, universal health care would link the middle class and the working class to the Democratic
Party for at least another generation. Republicans, of course, understood this fact, and they were
united in their determination to deny Clinton victory on this issue. Many Americans, while wanting
health insurance, worried, too, that national health insurance was communistic in character, a
socialized step that would deny Americans the right to seek a doctor of their choice while placing
physicians in the service of a government bureaucracy.
To push through a health reform bill in his first hundred days in office, Clinton named his wife, Hillary
Clinton, head of the task force to develop the program, and his old friend from Oxford, Ira Magaziner,
as its director. Hillary Clinton, a brilliant, hard-driving, forceful and committed feminist with a
distinguished legal career, was Clinton's closest political confidant—his partner actually in his political
career. The president appointed her to head the task force, which would be administered by
Magaziner, because he knew that she cared deeply about the issue, and that "if anybody had a chance
to do it, she had the best chance."
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In hindsight, the appointment of Hillary was a serious mistake for the short run goals of health care
reform. It immediately placed the First Lady in a position of being a major policy and political power
that deviated significantly from all precedent, thus allowing health care critics to attack her as well as
the program. She also blundered in several important ways. Her decision to recruit a task force of 600
experts to work in secret on thirty-four issues—such as health care premiums, managed competition,
and health care alliances—looked too much like policy by cabal and fiat. A federal court forced her to
open up some of the proceedings after health care providers and journalists sued for open access.
Most importantly, the process left Congress out of the picture, thus eliminating the political insiders
that actually made "the political system" work. Clinton wanted to present to Congress a finished
package, which meant that the participants in the congressional committee process were not involved
in its drafting. Nor were key members of the administration closely involved, such as Secretary of
Health and Human Services Donna Shalala and the Secretary of the Treasury Lloyd Bentsen. Clinton’s
economic advisers wound up opposing the task force’s plans and were skeptical of its economic
assumptions, and the task force disbanded without completing its work, which was given over to
several White House agencies.
REPUBLICAN AND PUBLIC BACKLASH
The end product was a massively complicated and sophisticated measure, completely beyond the
reach of the average citizen to comprehend, let alone understand. Nearly 1,350 pages long, the
proposal had taken much longer to produce—a full year—than originally imagined. Everyone
immediately complained that the president had mis-stepped in not going to the public with the broad
outlines of the plan that then could have been worked through the congressional committee process.
Everyone who was not included but who should have been voiced criticism, even many of the
proposal's supporters. Although Clinton's national health care speech in September 1993 was one of
the best he had ever delivered, the euphoria soon vanished as the Republican opponents lashed out at
the plan's size, incomprehensibility, and threat to small business and individual choice with a series of
sophisticated negative TV ads.
The coordinated Republican attack was greatly assisted by the outbreak of the Whitewater
investigation, numerous alleged sex scandals, and the suicide death of White House aid Vincent
Foster—all of which put the Clinton administration on the defensive. No extreme seemed out of
bounds in attacking the president and First Lady. The health care industry poured tens of millions of
dollars into the campaign. Conservative talk-radio host Rush Limbaugh daily ridiculed the president
and linked Whitewater and his alleged sexual affairs to health care, suggesting even that there may
have been a tie between Foster's death and the White House. Bumper stickers proclaimed: "Where is
Lee Harvey Oswald now that we need him?"
Although Clinton in his January 1994 State of the Union address threatened to veto a Republican
health care measure, it was an empty threat. By summer of 1994, despite a brilliant series of
congressional hearing appearances by Hillary Clinton, health care reform was doomed, and
congressional leaders dropped consideration of it in August. The public supported the general
principles involved, but support dropped forty points in the polls once Clinton’s name was attached to
it. It would be a devastating set back that nearly derailed the Clinton presidency before it even got
started. In the minds of many political analysts, it was a botched opportunity of gigantic proportions.
SCANDALS AND IMPEACHMENT
Unlike any president in history, Clinton was besieged by attackers with a determination and a
vehemence that bordered on outright hatred by his opponents, especially on the far right-wing of the
Republican Party. The nation had never seen anything quite like this display of vitriol. By the end of
his term, Clinton found himself, his staff, and the First Lady the subject of numerous special
investigations. By the end of 1999, no indictment or specific charges of criminal activity by the
president or Hillary Clinton had resulted from these investigations, although several of their Arkansas
associates have been indicted, tried, convicted, and imprisoned—including Clinton's replacement as
governor of Arkansas.
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WHITEWATER AND PAULA JONES
The most serious attacks on the president were those which charged him with a White House cover-up
of financial impropriety in his Arkansas investments prior to becoming president. The issue involved a
failed savings and loan company operated by Clinton business associates, James and Susan McDougal,
who had questionable business dealings in real estate on the Whitewater River in Arkansas. Once the
charges of a possible cover-up were made, Clinton's attorney general, Janet Reno, called for a special
prosecutor to be named. When the first special prosecutor, Republican Robert B. Fiske, Jr., turned up
no evidence of crimes or cover up, Republicans demanded his removal. Under the Independent
Counsel statute, a federal court replaced Fiske with Kenneth Starr, a conservative attorney and former
federal judge also retained by various right-wing clients and anti-Clinton corporations, namely tobacco
firms.
Searching for evidence of crime and cover-up, Starr began an open-ended inquiry into every corner of
Clinton's life, both before and during his presidency. No stone was left unturned, including an
unprecedented subpoena of the First Lady to testify about the surprise appearance of subpoenaed but
lost billing records from the Rose Law Firm (in which she had been a partner in Arkansas) that
mysteriously turned up on a table in the White House. Any personal or business associate of the
Clintons, past and present members of his political staff and administration, and just about anyone
who might have knowledge of their private and public actions were subject to subpoenas as witnesses
to be questioned. Any criminal actions uncovered in the search for evidence against Clinton were
subject to prosecution regardless of their links to Whitewater or to the president. This open-ended use
of the special prosecutor's office marked a new step in how the political opponents of an incumbent
president might use the law to target the chief executive and then determine if he might have
committed a crime. (This inverted the normal presumption of due process, which is to find evidence of
a crime and then investigate to see who might have committed it.)
Although the Clintons weathered the storm for the most part, it is clear that much of their time was
spent dealing with their defense. His first major setback came in May 27, 1997 when the Supreme
Court ruled 9 to 0 in Clinton v. Jones that the sexual harassment suit brought against the president by
Paula Jones could go forward while he was in office. Faced with the likelihood of a civil trial, Clinton
agreed to a settlement in the case, paying Jones nearly $1 million but without making an apology or
admission of guilt. Later he was ordered to pay a fine ordered by a federal judge for his misleading
testimony in the early stages of the case.
LEWINSKY AFFAIR AND IMPEACHMENT
Just as the Jones sexual harassment case seemed to be over, the news broke in January of 1998 that
a young White House intern named Monica Lewinsky had had a sexual relationship with the president.
Clinton denied the charges on national TV. Starr then expanded his Whitewater investigation, alleging
that Clinton had lied under oath in the Paula Jones case when he had denied having had sex with
Lewinsky. The special prosecutor was convinced that Clinton had lied, that he had tried to cover up
the affair, and that he had instructed others to obstruct justice by lying on his behalf.
The next seven months found the American public consumed by the Lewinsky affair, following every
nuance of the investigation by Starr and debating the merits of the case. Nothing like this had so
captured the attention of the American public since Watergate and Nixon's resignation from office.
Startling revelations came out, including taped interviews in which Lewinsky described details of the
affair as well as a dress that contained samples of the president's DNA. On August 17, 1998, Clinton
acknowledged in a televised address to the nation his "inappropriate" conduct with Lewinsky, that he
had lied about it to the nation, and that he had misled his wife. But he refused to admit having ever
instructed anyone else to lie or of trying to orchestrate a cover-up involving anyone else. A stunned
nation fully expected his resignation or impeachment. Starr then sent his report to the House of
Representatives alleging that there were grounds for impeaching Clinton for lying under oath,
obstruction of justice, abuse of powers, and other offenses. After a vitriolic series of House hearings,
all of which were televised, and the release of thousands of documents about the matter and their
posting on the Internet, the House Judiciary Committee recommended that an impeachment inquiry
commence on a strictly partisan vote. The televised House inquiry riveted the American public to their
televisions. The House adopted two articles of impeachment—charging the president with perjury in
his grand jury testimony and obstructing justice in his dealings with various potential witnesses.
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The Senate, charged under the Constitution with judging the evidence, opened its trial in mid-January
1999, and it became immediately clear that a two-thirds majority vote to convict Clinton and remove
him from office would not emerge. Those voting against impeachment argued that these were private
matters, involving "low" and tawdry actions, and not "high crimes and misdemeanors" involving
offenses against the state. Those voting against Clinton argued that even in private matters, a
president who commits perjury and obstructs justice is subverting the rule of law, and it is that
subversion that becomes the "high crime," and not the original offense. He was acquitted on both
counts on February 12, 1999. Forty-five Republican senators voted guilty while forty-five Democrats
and ten Republicans voted for acquittal. On the second article of obstruction of justice, fifty
Republicans voted for conviction while forty-five Democrats and five Republicans voted for acquittal.
Thus, the second president to have been impeached in U.S. history (Andrew Johnson was the first)
remained in office, acquitted and with two years left in his second term.
IMPEACHMENT FALLOUT
In the process of pursuing an impeachment of the president, the Republicans had seriously overplayed
their hand. This was because the impeachment attempt had actually strengthened Democratic unity as
the party moved to protect Clinton and to deny the Republicans a victory in the 1998 congressional
elections. The outcome should have been obvious to them when the Republicans actually lost five
seats in the House while gaining no seats in the Senate in the November elections. Traditionally, the
opposition party gains thirty to forty seats in the off-year elections of a president’s second term, and
so the Republican loss was unprecedented.
At the end of the impeachment proceedings, Clinton's ratings in public opinion polls were at an alltime high, ranging between 65 and 70 percent. Each time Starr or the Republicans in Congress
provided fresh evidence for their charges, Clinton’s popularity increased. Most Americans believed him
to be guilty of lying to the nation, and gave him low marks for character and honesty. But, they gave
him high marks for performance, and a majority wanted him censured and condemned for his
conduct, but not impeached and removed. A majority viewed key Republican attackers as meanspirited extremists willing to use what was a personal scandal for partisan goals. In the end, voters
were happy with Clinton's handling of the White House, the economy, and most matters of public life.
Incredibly too, Hillary Clinton's public opinion poll ratings actually exceeded the president's, in large
measure because of her dignified demeanor during those trying personal times, thus lifting her
popularity to among the highest ever given any First Lady in history.
THE REPUBLICAN REVOLUTION
The Republican offensive led by House Speaker Newt Gingrich of Georgia that captured both houses of
Congress in 1994 ran out of steam by 1998. Not only did the Republicans lose the presidential election
of 1996, but they also lost much public support by overplaying their hand in the impeachment of a
popular president during times of prosperity. As a result, the nation settled in for compromise or
deadlock in the last two years of the Clinton presidency. Major new social initiatives were rare, and the
Republican Congress continued to cut and chip away at post-New Deal programs, while substituting
programs aimed at business and defense contractors. Needed reforms of Social Security, Medicare and
Medicaid, and health care were not enacted because of the deadlock between the two parties and the
weakness of the embattled president.
ASSESSMENT OF THE CLINTON PRESIDENCY
Analyzing a recent President is always difficult. In a history class, we’re trying to think about how the
person will be viewed 50 years from now. What should we learn from this President?
STUDENTS VIEWED THESE AS POSITIVES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Balancing the Budget/ Working with Congress
Reduction in Taxes on poor/Higher on the rich
Tough anti-crime measures
Appointments of women and minorities
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TO THAT LIST, I WOULD ADD . . .
1.
2.
His “free-trade” policies (i.e. NAFTA and PNTR with China)
His “third way” politics – that is, willingness to compromise Democratic and Republican positions
in order to get legislation passed (that will be purely a political judgment, but he will be heralded
as a “change-agent” in that regard)
STUDENTS VIEWED THESE AS NEGATIVES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The impeachment episode
Misled the Congress/ Lied under oath
Went back on his pledge to cut middle class taxes
Extra-marital affairs
TO THAT LIST, I WOULD ADD . . .
1.
2.
3.
His failure to champion campaign finance reform, especially if this issue continues to gain
momentum.
A sloppiness with security issues during his tenure (nuclear facilities, State Department, etc.)
His willingness to abandon some of the principles of his own party in order to “deal” with the
Republicans – of course, that will be purely a “political” judgment.
I’M WORKING ON AN ANALYSIS OF THE BUSH YEARS (2001-2009), BUT
HAVE NOT COMPLETED IT YET. IT WILL TAKE TIME TO GAIN SOME
PERSPECTIVE.
NOTE: THROUGHOUT THE SEMESTER IN AP HISTORY WE WILL FOLLOW THE CURRENT
EVENTS THAT IMPACT OUR POLITICAL HISTORY, PARTICULARLY RELATED TO THE PRESIDENT
CURRENTLY IN OFFICE.
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