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PSIR205
The Building of European Supremacy
The growth of industrialism
• Increasing productivity capacity
• Modern nation-states emerge, with centralized
bureaucracies, large electorates, and competing
political parties
• Big corporations appeared
• Labour was organized under trade unions
• Predominance of urban life
• Socialism mobilized the working force and
masseses
Population and Migration
• Sudden increase in Europe’s population
• Migration started from rural areas to cities due to the
removal of legal hindrances for peasants,
developments in transportation, availability of cheap
land and good wages.
• Around 50 million emigrated from Europe between
1850 and 1930s to United States, Canada, Australia,
South Africa, Brazil, or Argentina
• People mostly moved from Scandinavia (Norway in
particular), Ireland, Germany. Towards the end of 19th
century, southern and eastern Europeans left the
continent.
The Second Industrial Revolution
• First industrial revolution: textiles, iron, and
applications of steam power
• Second industrial revolution: production of steel,
chemicals, electricity, and oil
• NEW INDUSTRIES: Cheap steel production; growing of
chemical industry in Germany (industry and research
collaboration), electricity, invention of the internal
combustion engine and of the automobile (Daimler)
• BIG COMPANIES: Standard Oil of the United States,
British Shell Oil, and Royal Dutch
Industrialization and economic
difficulties
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Migration from rural areas
Banking crises of 1873
Still, living standards increased in Europe
Workers continued to live in not good conditions
Unemployment increased
Trade unions and socialist parties emerged
Consumer demand boosted the economy: food prices got
cheaper, enabling people to spend more on other
consumer goods
• Urbanization created new markets
• New business strategies were developed: department
stores, chain stores, packaging, etc..)
MIDDLE CLASSES
• The middle class was the largest consumer
group, and it set the standards of the taste
and values
• The London Great Exhibition of 1851 was a
manifestation of the material comfort
provided by industrial revolution
The London Great Exhibition of 1851
Social Distinctions within Middle
Classes
• Wealthy business men
• Small entrepreneurs and professionals
• White collar workers, or petite bourgeoisie (nonmanual workers)
• Shop-keepers were not happy with the idea of
competing with department stores
• There was an increased supply of professionals,
which meant that skilled jobs were also highly
competitive
LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY URBAN
LIFE
• Massive urban growth
• Migration of peasants from tradition social
support systems to poor housing
• Anonymity, and unemployment
• Problems arose among different ethnic groups
• Relocation of Russian Jews in Western Europe
led to anti-Semitism
The redesign of cities
• Migration to urban areas required important
changes in the city
• Most European cities were redesigned
• Residents of cities moved to the peripheries,
and the city centre was redesigned for new
buildings including governmental and business
offices, as well as theatres
The new Paris
• George Haussmann was appointed by
Napoleon III
• Whole districts were destroyed, eliminating
narrow roads that rioters build barricades.
• Rebuilding of Paris also created many public
jobs
The new Paris after Haussmann
Urban Sanitation
• Impact of Cholera: Public health was improved
• Expanded Government Involvement in Public
Health
• New Water and Sewer Systems:
Housing reform and Middle-Class
Values
• Housing reform was proposed as a solution to
medical, moral, and political problems
• Descent housing: good family life, and healthy,
moral, happy, and stable political communities
Industrialization and Women
• Social disabilities of Women:
– Property
– Family Law
– Educational Barriers
• New Employment Patterns:
– New jobs: elementary school teachers, secretaries,
low skilled jobs
• Withdrawal from the labour force:
– this was mostly due to marriage, and the husbands
also started earn better wages
Jewish Emancipation
• Jews started obtain citizenship in most of Europe after the
French Revolution, except in Russia
• In Russia, Jews encountered many social restrictions. They
needed a special passport, banned from state service, and
may Jews were not accepted to the higher education.
Pogroms, organized by society together with the Police
force, aimed at intimidating Jewish communities.
• Many Jews fled from Russia
• From expanded political rights to anti-Semitism during the
late 19th century
LABOR, SOCIALISM, AND POLITICS
• From street riots to institutionalization:
Labour established trade unions, political
parties, and attached to socialist ideology
• Trade Unionism:
– Recognition of workers right to organize
• Democracy and Political Parties:
– Extension of suffrage in Europe, except Russia led
to a change in the strategies of the working class
Marx and First International
• Establishment of the International Working Men’s
Association (First International) in 1864
• Marx approved collaboration with the capitalist
system in his address
• Trade unions’ activities were banned in France
after 1871, following Paris Commune experience
• First International was dissolved in 1873
Great Britain: Fabianism and Welfare
Programs
• Trade unions supported Liberal Parties in
Great Britain.
• Fabian Society was founded in 1864. It was
the most powerful socialist organization. It
adopted reformism, as opposed to a
revolutionary strategy for social change.
• First proto-welfare programs were adopted by
David Lloyd George government
France: opportunism rejected
• French socialists refused to work with the government.
They called this act as opportunism, a label given to
Alexander Millerand who accepted to work in the
French cabinet.
• The Second International ordered France to form a
single party, which would be found by 1914.
• Trade unions avoided political action, as they
considered themselves alternative to political parties.
They preferred general strikes. Trade unions’ ideology
was shaped by George Sorel.
Germany: Social Democrats and
Revisionism
• The first universal welfare programs were implemented by Bismarck
during 1880s.
• Erfurt Program: German Social Democratic Party took a harsh stand
against cooperation with German Empire. Karl Kautsky and Bebel,
who formulated the program, preserved the belief in end of
capitalism. But, they aimed to achieve this via political participation
• Eduard Bernstein developed a social democratic critique of Marx. In
contrast to the expansion of the proletariat, as Marx predicted,
middle class enlarged. Extension of the franchise also made the
revolution redundant.
• SPD grew rapidly in terms of its membership and electoral gains.
Russia: Industrial Revolution and
Bolshevism
• Nicholas II initiated modernization in Russia.
• Industrialism created social discontent.
• Emancipation of the serfs failed to boost agricultural
productivity
• Mir (or village) and kulaks
• Establishment of the Social Revolutionary Party, the Liberal
Constitutional Democratic Party, and a Socialist Democratic
Party
Lenin
• He was exiled and spent seventeen years in
Switzerland.
• He was a member of Social Democrats.
• Revolution by a Vanguard party
• 1903 London Congress of the Social Democrats and
their split into two: Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
• The revolution of 1905: Establishment of Duma