Download Growth, Sustainability and Well-Being Indicators 2000-2010

GROWTH, SUSTAINABILITY
AND WELL-BEING INDICATORS
ISRAEL 2000-2010
‫נייר אקולוגי‬
Ministry of Environmental Protection
www.environment.gov.il /english
Growth, Sustainability
and Well-Being Indicators
Israel 2000-2010
Jerusalem, November 2012
Initiation and Guidance: Galit Cohen
Writing and Editing: Tamar Makov-Israeli, Amit Yagur-Kroll
Final Editing: Dr. Ohad Carny
Production: Publications, Information and Internet Division
An electronic version of this report is available on the website of the Ministry of Environmental Protection:
www.environment.gov.il/english
Ministry of Environmental Protection
Cluster of Planning and Policy
Growth, Sustainability and Well-Being Indicators Israel 2000-2010
Foreword by the Minister of Environmental Protection
It is generally believed that economic growth, expressed as an increase in gross domestic
product (GDP), is synonymous with improvement in standard of living. It is for this reason that
politicians, economists and businesspeople have focused on increasing the GDP as a central goal.
While economic growth surely contributes to an improvement in standard of living, the one
dimensional drive to achieve it has often led to shortsighted and narrow-minded policy which
has created social and environmental problems which are no less severe than those it prevented.
We sometimes tend to forget that economic growth is not the end in and of itself but rather a
means to improving human quality of life and well-being while assuring that such improvement
will continue for future generations as well.
The measurement of economic growth, therefore, cannot be disconnected from the way growth is
achieved or from the measurement of its impacts. For example, the devastating forest fire which took
place in Mount Carmel in 2010 led to a rise in GDP without giving expression to the concurrent loss
of human lives, the deterioration in the well-being of the residents and the destruction of some 3,500
hectares of shrubland and forest. OECD forecasts anticipate a major erosion of natural environmental
capital on a global scale by 2050, with the risk of irreversible changes. Overexploitation of natural
resources, similarly to bank accounts, can leave us in overdraft – both on the global scale and in Israel itself.
It is the responsibility of Israel’s leadership to understand the economic challenges which confront
the state and to manage the country’s resources accordingly, based on a long term outlook and
a review of a wide range of outcome indicators that go beyond GDP.
In light of the current economic crisis, we have an opportunity to spearhead a change in
perception and to advance renewed thinking on the way in which we measure economic success
and management. The time has come to propose a new and wider economic model, which
internalizes environmental and social aspects as well. The Ministry of Environmental Protection,
in cooperation with the Bank of Israel, the Central Bureau of Statistics and other ministries, has
formulated a preliminary series of complementary indicators which alongside the GDP will provide
a comprehensive and more reliable picture for measuring well-being in Israel.
We hope that when the future state budget is presented, a series of additional indicators dealing
with the social distribution of the fruits of growth and its environmental impacts will be presented
alongside the GDP and growth data. These data will provide decision makers with a fuller and
more reliable picture which will assure optimal decisions on state budget priorities.
With this publication, I am proud to present the path we have taken to develop these indicators
and believe that they will assist decision makers to navigate the State of Israel toward a better
and more sustainable future.
MK Gilad Erdan
Minister of Environmental Protection
II
Executive Summary
Background
Contemporary economic and environmental discourse shows a marked preoccupation with the
need to find means for the measurement of growth, development and well-being, based on
the principles of sustainable development. In recent years, there has been growing concern that
standard statistical macro-economic indicators, such as the GDP, which has been used to assess
well-being for years, do not provide an accurate picture of contemporary and future human
living conditions. To name a few examples, the GDP does not include the costs of environmental
damages and resource exploitation; it does not take into consideration unpaid work (such as
domestic chores); nor does it reflect growing or shrinking socio-economic gaps or changes in the
quality of the services supplied to citizens.
The ongoing fiscal and economic crisis and the wave of social protests have reinforced this concern
and have prompted extensive agreement that GDP data provide only a partial aspect of the wide
range of factors which affect human quality of life. As a consequence, many alternative approaches
to the measurement of well-being have been suggested, advocating a broader perspective, which
would take into consideration a more extensive gamut of well-being and sustainability factors.
For example, according to the Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi report, which surveyed methodologies for the
measurement of economic performance and social development on behalf of the government
of France, well-being and quality of life are affected by the population's economic resources
(income), as well as by the non-economic aspects of human life (subjective emotions and living
environment). On the other hand sustainability has to do with the question of whether current
quality of life levels may be sustained in the long term. The sustainability of quality of life is
dependent upon bequeathing the resources which are critical to human life (economic, natural,
social and humanistic) to future generations. A recent OECD report, entitled “How’s Life? Measuring
Well-Being”, notes that even in times of economic hardship, when the recovery of growth is
crucial for the achievement of various well-being goals, such as the attainment of better jobs
or of affordable housing, policy-making should be based first and foremost on people's needs,
concerns and aspirations, as well as on the sustainability of society as a whole.
The Framework
In order to advance a well informed sustainable development policy in Israel, the Ministry of
Environmental Protection (MoEP) has initiated the first step in a long-term process for the
development of an annual set of indicators, reflecting the Israeli environmental-social-economic
milieu over time and the relationships between the different domains. To this end, the MoEP
approached the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics with a request to formulate a preliminary set of
indicators for the years 2000-2010, based, at this first stage, on the existing database. With the
full cooperation of other government agencies, including the Bank of Israel, the Israeli Ministry
of Finance, the Israeli Ministry of Health and the Israeli Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labor,
as well as external experts hailing from the third sector and from academia, a preliminary set of
III
Growth, Sustainability and Well-Being Indicators Israel 2000-2010
indicators for sustainable development and well-being was developed, which is presented for the
first time in the current report. The results of the indicator analysis, comments, recommendations
and insights, which emerged from this year's extensive discussion on the subject and which are
presented in the current report, will serve as the basis for continued work in years to come.
Main Findings
The set of environmental indicators demonstrates a trend of improvement in indicators reflecting
pollution loads which are directly linked to the present state of public health (such as quality of
drinking water or quality of air). These changes mainly stem from the introduction of new technologies
and from government policy which emphasizes pollution reduction. In contrast, other indicators
which reflect the potential for future growth and the preservation of well-being and environmental
quality over time (such as investment and resource efficiency) show deterioration over the past
decade, or alternately no marked change, even where improvement was much needed at the start.
These findings suggest that current environmental activity is driven by a short-term outlook,
which mainly takes into account factors affecting present-day public health, while overlooking
the negative effects of ongoing environmental degradation on economic growth potential and
the ability to maintain well-being over time. This trend goes against the rationale underlying the
green growth economic doctrine, promoted by the OECD, which is based on environmental
planning and investment, combined with wise resource use. This point is especially relevant for
the State of Israel, which is more vulnerable to the adverse impacts of environmental deterioration
due to its scarcity of natural resources such as land and water, its insular economy and its high
rate of population growth.
An analysis of the set of social indicators demonstrates a trend of improvement in health and
personal security, an increase in the number of years of education, and a decrease in political
involvement. These changes correspond with the economic growth, the rise in standard of living
and the increasing demands which characterize an advanced labor market. In addition, data
show that over the examined time period familial and social ties were tightened and rates of
participation in volunteer work increased. While these findings suggest a rise in social cohesion,
which favorably affects well-being, the professional literature also notes that the sense of social
cohesion likewise rises in times of crisis, so that there may be varying interpretations for this finding.
Similarly to the findings in the environmental domain, indicators reflecting the potential for
future growth and well-being demonstrate a worsening trend between the years 2000-2010,
whose impacts will become evident in following decades. For example, while the expenditure
on education as a percentage of GDP is high in Israel relative to other developed countries, in
terms of purchasing power the expenditure per student is lower than the OECD average. The
governmental expenditure on health has also decreased over the past decade, while private
expenditures on health (funded by households themselves) have risen. These findings suggest that
from a social standpoint as well, Israeli policy lacks a long-term perspective which takes account
of the negative impacts of the widening of social gaps and the decrease in the quality of human
capital on Israel's potential for economic growth and prosperity.
IV
Economically, Israeli policy also demonstrates a somewhat narrow outlook. A review of the
data suggests that while Israel’s economy has grown over the past decade, the fruits of its
economic success were not evenly distributed among various population groups. Even though
economic development indicators show a positive trend (higher GDP per person together with
a handsome economic growth rate which is especially prominent in light of the recent global
financial crisis, as well as increased participation in the civil workforce and an overall decrease in
unemployment rates), indicators reflecting equality have deteriorated (rising income differences
between quintiles, decrease in employees' share value out of the net national income, and
increase in long-term unemployment). Since inequality and social gaps fundamentally affect
present and future well-being and are recognized as sources of instability, it may be concluded
that Israeli economic policy also lacks the long-term vision and planning necessary to advance
sustainable economic development.
In light of Israel's impressive economic growth and its acceptance into the global community of
developed countries, more extensive investment in environmental and social domains and across
the board improvements in indicators would have been expected. Just as the effects of decreased
investment in education will only be manifested in a decade or two – in a decrease in the quality of
human capital and a deepening of social gaps – so too inefficient utilization of natural resources and
insufficient environmental investment will become evident not only in increased environmental burdens
but in rising costs of living and growing inequalities. While the environmental and social services
provided by the state serve all sectors of the population equally, their importance for weaker social
strata is greater since these groups cannot privately finance such services. Therefore, it is imperative to
adopt a comprehensive view and to examine ways in which Israel's relative economic power may be
utilized to tackle social and environmental challenges on the basis of long-term plans which recognize
the importance of minimizing present gaps, utilizing resources and preserving and developing Israel's
human and environmental capital as a means of influencing present and future well-being.
Recommendations and Proposed Outline for Future Policy
Many factors affect well-being and its sustainability over time. Economic development is not an
end in and of itself, but rather a means for the improvement of well-being. Therefore, during
the formulation of an informed development policy, a wide array of indicators, including social
and environmental ones in addition to the classic economic indicators, must be examined.
The current set of indicators comprises the first Israeli attempt to develop indicators which
will present policy-makers and the Israeli public with a more comprehensive picture of the
links between growth, sustainability and well-being. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of
the subject, the recommendation is to continue the present course of action, which is led by
an inter-ministerial steering committee with representatives from the relevant ministries, the
Central Bureau of Statistics and the Bank of Israel, in conjunction with a committee of external
experts comprised of academic representatives and relevant non-governmental agencies. In
addition, as is the case in other countries (such as the United Kingdom and Australia), it is
recommended that ways should be found to increase public participation in the process of
consolidating the indicators.
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Growth, Sustainability and Well-Being Indicators Israel 2000-2010
With regard to the general structure of the set of indicators and their distribution into central
subjects, the professional literature suggests two alternative approaches. The first is rooted in
the perception of sustainability which is based on the three pillars of environment, economy and
society. The second is based on the measurement of happiness and includes a more detailed
distribution into major aspects such as environment, income, housing, employment, society,
education, health, government, community, leisure and general life satisfaction. While the current
set of indicators is based on the sustainability approach, it is recommended that the compatibility
of the happiness approach should be examined in light of the emphasis on well-being.
Additional work is also required on the indicators themselves. While the consolidation and
publication of the current set of indicators is an important and welcome effort, it is based almost
exclusively on existing indicators and therefore leaves many subjects without adequate coverage.
Therefore, this set should not be seen as a recommendation on the final composition, but rather
as the first step down the lengthy road toward the development of indicators. While it may be
possible to develop new and more fitting indicators based on routinely collected data, missing or
insufficient data may hamper the work in some areas. For example, although the annual social
survey of the Central Bureau of Statistics collects data regarding the length of the commute to
work, the range of possible answers (which includes only three categories: up to fifteen minutes,
fifteen to thirty minutes or half an hour and upwards) limits the potential for analysis and the
drawing of conclusions on the subject. In order to overcome such limitations, it is advisable to
conduct an in-depth examination of the means and methods in which data is currently collected,
to identify the gaps, to examine the most effective ways to complete the data and, on this basis,
to formulate detailed and practical recommendations in each area. It is further recommended
that prioritizing the implementation of the recommendations will be based on the importance
of the indicator, while taking its economic cost into consideration.
While the current study and the indicators formulated in its framework are not flawless, they do
testify to the strides made toward a broader outlook, which no longer views economic growth
as the be all and end all, but rather as a means of improving the well-being of Israel’s residents
over time. In light of the fact that what is not measured is not managed, the importance of the
present study largely lies in setting the process into motion and recognizing its significance.
The indicators must be further developed in years to come and must be published annually and
regularly. Furthermore, ways of integrating the indicators as a work tool among decision makers
in Israel should be found.
VI
Environmental, Social and Economic Indicators
Main Findings
Table 1: Environmental Indicators
Indicators
Trend Analysis
Financial Investment
Financial Investment
in Environmental
Protection
Expenditure on environmental protection decreased over the decade and
was lower than the average for OECD countries and developing countries
(as Israel was defined during the examined decade), although environmental
loads in Israel are relatively high (small area, limited resources, growing
population and a rise in living standards).
Transportation
Infrastructure
Investment in infrastructures for private vehicles was higher than investment
in public transport infrastructures. This reflects a governmental preference for
private vehicles.
Utilization of Natural Resources
Biological Diversity
There is no adequate indicator which provides a comprehensive overview of
the state of biodiversity in Israel. However, a deterioration in the number of
endangered species over time was evident and the rates were high when
compared globally.
Land Resources
Despite a shortage in lands, a trend of consistent reduction was seen in the
proportion of residential apartments in saturated construction, out of the
total of residential construction. This contradicts the declared governmental
policy which favors saturated construction over single family homes and
attests to the inefficient utilization of land resources, which may impede a
reduction in apartment prices in the future.
There is no sufficient monitoring of the utilization of lands, the conversion
of open lands, etc. It is imperative to develop and regularly publish more
sophisticated indicators on this subject, especially due to the fact that land
constitutes Israel's most limited resource.
Kilometers Travelled
Kilometers travelled in practice by private vehicles steadily increased in
contrast to the total kilometers travelled by buses, which remained constant.
Position indicators show that nearly half of Israel’s residents are dissatisfied
with the commute time.
Indicators are lacking on the scope of use, accessibility and level of satisfaction
from public transportation, and such indicators should be developed and
published regularly.
Energy
Energy consumption per GDP unit decreased moderately, although this
decrease was not significant in absolute terms. This trend may be largely
attributed to the shutting down of traditional industries and the shift to hi-tech
industries (which are characterized by lower energy consumption and a high
GDP), as well as to the introduction of newer, more energetically efficient
technologies. Israel’s energy intensity was lower than the average in developed
countries, but the trend of improvement in this area was more moderate in
Israel in comparison to the average improvement in these countries. This also
holds true for improvements in the intensity of greenhouse gas emissions.
Legend
Positive Trend
No Sufficient Indicator
No Significant Change
Negative Trend
VII
Growth, Sustainability and Well-Being Indicators Israel 2000-2010
Indicators
Trend Analysis
Wastewater
Treatment
The percentage of the population which was connected to secondary
wastewater treatment systems rose steadily, reflecting the investment in
environmental service infrastructures to the population. This large percentage
attests to a high level of wastewater treatment and serves as an indicator for
the efficiency of water utilization. In this context, Israel is on par with other
environmentally leading developed countries, such as Denmark and Korea.
Utilization of Water
Sources
While a significant change in mountain aquifer salinity was not discernible,
a clear trend of increase in the average salinity of the coastal aquifer may be
identified, which continues the consistent rise in aquifer salinity over the past
forty years. This increase reflects the overexploitation of this water source and
is attributed, among other things, to overpumping, which lowers the water
level and leads to a penetration of sea water, to droughts which reduce the
rainwater penetrating the aquifer, to irrigation which infiltrates salts, and to
the recharge of effluent and water from the national water carrier.
A more detailed indicator is necessary to represent the efficiency of water
source utilization.
Utilization of Waste
Resources
There is no adequate indicator for the utilization of water resources. Only
very low percentages of waste were recycled or used for energy production
in Israel in comparison to developed countries and most of the waste
was landfilled, creating environmental hazards. Currently there is a lack of
indicators which can comprehensively depict the efficiency of waste resource
utilization, percentages of reuse, recycling, etc. There is also a lack of
indicators which assess the environmenal harm and the external costs which
stem from the inefficient treatment and the illegal dumping of waste in Israel.
Environmental Health
Drinking Water
The percentage of exceedances of the drinking water standard decreased,
although the rate of exceedances was also low in the base year of 2000. Based
on this indicator, it may be concluded that the quality of drinking water is high.
Beach Water
No trend of worsening or improvement could be discerned in the percentage
of exceedances of the standard in beach water testing. It should be noted
that the range of exceedances is narrow and relatively low.
Air Pollution
Air pollutant emissions decreased. Since air pollution is directly linked with
morbidity and mortality and negatively affects well-being, realization of the
potential for efficiency in this area is crucial to ensure continued growth
and sustained well-being over time. The decrease is mostly attributed to the
introduction of new technologies and to more stringent policy by the MoEP.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that emission levels in Israel are still high
when compared to the average in OECD countries and exceedances of air
pollution standards are recorded on several days of the year.
Pollution of Streams
Pollution loads in Israel’s streams decreased significantly. This decrease is mostly
attributed to the construction of infrastructures for large-scale wastewater
treatment as well as to improved monitoring, supervision and enforcement.
Land Pollution
Thousands of areas with land pollution potential may be found in Israel. The
overall estimated cost for the assessment and treatment of the suspected
contaminated lands in the sectors and sites surveyed thus far is 8.2 billion
shekels. Due to the extensive scope of this environmental problem, the
development of indicators is crucial. Since the problem has historic roots,
indicators which reflect the rate of treatment of this hazard are recommended.
Legend
VIII
Positive Trend
No Sufficient Indicator
No Significant Change
Negative Trend
Indicators
Trend Analysis
Positions and Perceptions on Environmental Issues (Subjective Indicators)
Satisfaction with
Cleanliness and
Green Areas
No significant improvement on these issues was noted and nearly half of
Israel’s residents were not satisfied with the green areas or the cleanliness in
their vicinity.
Satisfaction with
Length of Commute
to Work
Nearly half of Israel’s residents were disturbed or very disturbed by the
time it takes them to commute to work. This situation corresponds to the
accelerated investments in transport infrastructure targeted at private vehicles
and the constant increase in the kilometers travelled by private vehicles.
Table 2: Social Indicators
Indicators
Trend Analysis
Health
Health Expenditure
No significant change in the national expenditure on health as a percentage
of the GDP was noted in the past decade. However, the rate of national
expenditure was lower in Israel than the average for OECD countries and, in
terms of purchasing power, the expenditure on mental health services was
lower in Israel than in most developed countries. The decrease in national
expenditure was accompanied by an increase in the privately funded portion
of the national expenditure. While this increase may reflect a rise in wellbeing, it may be assumed that it also reflects a move to private medicine and
services which are not included in the public health services basket and a
decrease in the availability of public health services.
Life Expectancy
The life expectancy of Israeli residents rose and was among the highest in
OECD countries. Nonetheless, it is important to note that this indicator does
not necessarily reflect the level of health enjoyed by the citizen throughout
his/her life, a factor which undoubtedly affects quality of life and wellbeing. It is crucial to develop and regularly publish the health-adjusted life
expectancy – the number of years that a person is expected to live in good
health (without major illness or disability).
Infant Mortality
The rate of infant mortality in Israel decreased and was somewhat lower
than the average in developed countries.
Education
Expenditure on
Education
The national expenditure on education as a percentage of the GDP
decreased. Although the national expenditure on education as a percentage
of the GDP was higher in Israel than the average for OECD countries, the
expenditure per student in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP) was
lower than the OECD average, at all levels of schooling. It is important to
remember that the extent of financial investment in education is not the
only parameter which determines the quality of education and it is therefore
important to examine outcome indicators (success rates in matriculation
and international exams), as well as parameters which assess education and
values (such as classroom violence or dropout rates).
Matriculation Rates
Despite the increase in matriculation rates, no consistent trend was evident
since there were rises and drops in the percentage of students who passed
the matriculation tests.
Legend
Positive Trend
No Sufficient Indicator
No Significant Change
Negative Trend
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Growth, Sustainability and Well-Being Indicators Israel 2000-2010
Indicators
Trend Analysis
The number of 25-64 year olds with over 12 years of schooling as well as the
number of individuals with an academic degree increased. This corresponds
to the higher requirements in the modern job market.
Education
Society, Civic Engagement and Personal Security
Civic Engagement
The percentage of voters in Knesset elections decreased, similarly to the drop
seen in most developed countries. Israeli voting percentages were slightly
lower than the average for OECD countries and were similar to those of
Finland and the Czech Republic.
Volunteering
The percentage of the population which reported taking part in volunteer
activity increased. While this trend undoubtedly reflects a much welcome
rise in civic engagement, it may also stem from a less favorable reduction
of the state's part in the provision of services to the wide public, and an
increase in the responsibilities taken on by third sector organizations and
non-governmental, volunteer based organizations in this field.
Personal Security
No significant change was noted in the number of homicides or in the
number of reports of physical harm. Similarly to most developed countries,
the homicide rate in Israel was lower than the OECD average, which is
raised by an especially high homicide rate in some countries. On the other
hand, the number of reports regarding property damage in Israel decreased
significantly, with most of the reduction occurring between 2005-2009.
Social Ties
Studies indicate a link between suicide rates and the strength of social
support systems. No unified trend with regard to suicide rates in Israel
was noted, though these rates remained low compared to the average in
developed countries This reflects social cohesion as well as the stability
of familial and social support systems in Israel, which are also expressed
in the perception and position indicators in the set of social indicators.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that suicide indicators do not provide a
complete picture of the network of social ties, and are also affected by low
reportage rates. Due to the issue's importance for well-being, it is imperative
to develop indicators which provide a more comprehensive picture.
Social Positions and Perceptions (Subjective Indicators)
Self Reported Health
The percentage of those reporting good or very good health increased,
reaching some of the highest rates among developed countries, with
rates similar to those seen in countries in which citizens report the best
health conditions . This indicator supplements the impression formed by the
positive trend in life span and infant mortality indicators.
Social and Familial
Ties
The percentage of those reporting satisfaction with their familial ties
did not change significantly, while a slight increase was noted in the
numbers reporting satisfaction from ties with friends These rates are high
in comparison to the average in developed countries. These data attest
to a strong network of relationships, which undoubtedly favorably affects
the well-being of Israeli residents. These indicators support the impression
created by the low suicide rates.
Sense of No One to
Turn to in Times of
Crisis or Distress
The percentage of those feeling that they have no one to turn to in times of
crisis or distress decreased significantly.
Legend
X
Positive Trend
No Sufficient Indicator
No Significant Change
Negative Trend
Table 3: Economic Indicators
Indicators
Trend Analysis
Economic Situation and Equality
Economic
Development and
Growth
Over the past decade Israel enjoyed economic growth, expressed by an
increase in the GDP per person.
Inequality
Gaps widened and economic inequalities between various population groups
in Israel increased. The income gap between the upper and the lower quintiles
increased and was larger than that noted in European Union countries. This
suggests that despite the growth trend which characterizes Israel, economic
resources are not uniformly distributed and do not reach the lower deciles.
Employee
Compensation
The percentage of compensation which reached employees' pockets in
relation to the total net national income decreased.
Employment
Workforce
Participation and
Unemployment
The percentage of 25-54 year olds which participated in the civil workforce
increased moderately. In parallel, the proportion of unemployed out of
the civil workforce gradually decreased. In comparison to other developed
countries, Israel was characterized by low unemployment rates.
Long-term
Unemployment
The rate of long-term unemployment increased, with the percentage of
unemployed workers searching for employment for a year and above out of the
total number of unemployed nearly doubling. While the rate was lower than
the average in OECD countries, the consistent increase attests to a constant
deterioration and reflects the difficulty of breaking the long-term unemployment
cycle so that the burden of unemployment falls on a more limited group.
Leisure - Work Ratio
The average number of work-hours per week in Israel decreased.
Nevertheless, the average number of work-hours in Israel was high
compared to the average in developed countries. According to the OECD,
a high number of Israelis work especially long hours, with only Turkey and
Mexico exceeding these numbers.
This impression is reinforced by the social survey of the Central Bureau of
Statistics, which demonstrated that nearly half of employees in Israel with
children under the age of 18 report occasional or frequent difficulty in family
functioning due to work-related obligations.
Housing
Number of
Inhabitants per Room
The number of inhabitants per room increased slightly, but there was no
significant change in this indicator.
Economic Position and Perception (Subjective Indicators)
Level of Satisfaction
with Financial
Situation and with
Place of Employment
Despite a rise in satisfaction from the economic situation, many of Israel’s
residents expressed dissatisfaction from their financial situation. This corresponds
to the social protest of the summer of 2011, which raised the public discourse
on such issues as cost of living in Israel and the difficulty of preserving well-being
among the middle class, which participates in the workforce.
Level of Satisfaction
with Apartment and
Living Environment
The percentage of those reporting a sense of satisfaction with their
apartment and with their living environment increased slightly. This
corresponds to the rise in the standard of living.
Legend
Positive Trend
No Sufficient Indicator
No Significant Change
Negative Trend
XI