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CHAPTER-3
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
3.0 INTRODUCTION:
Social inequality is a universal phenomenon in all societies. It can exist in form of a
hierarchy of groups or individuals, which is called social hierarchy. It may exit without
creating hierarchy in this case it is known as social differentiation. If social inequality
manifests itself in the form of a hierarchy involving ranking of groups then it is known as
social stratification, thus social stratification is a particular case of the social inequality.
Social stratification is essentially a group phenomenon. Social stratification is a
concept involving the "classification of people into groups based on shared socioeconomic conditions ... a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and
ideological dimensions." When differences lead to greater status, power or privilege for
some groups over the other it is called Social Stratification. Society is divided on the
bases of economic, social, religious and other bases. This heterogeneity in the society
is called as Social Stratification. The concept of “Social Stratification” is made use of to
refer to such classification or degree and placement of people in society. Stratification
assumes three main forms; caste, class and race.
3.1 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:
3.1.1 ETYMOLOGICAL MEANING:
The word stratification is derived from ‘Latin word’ Stratum/Sternere. It indicates toward
geological concept of
‘Strata’ which mean a layer of material, rock layers created
naturally or artificially, often one of a number of parallel layers one upon
another. Stratification is a hierarchy of positions with regard to economic status which
influences
the
3.1.2 DEFINITION:-
social
rewards
to
those
in
the
positions.
Raymond W. Murray; “Social Stratification is horizontal division of society into ‘higher’
and ‘lower’ social units. Every society is divided into more or less distinct groups. Even
the most primitive societies had some form of social stratification.”
Ogburn and Nimkoff, ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in
more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification”
Lundberg, “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among
people that are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”.
Gisbert,
“Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of
categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordinations”.
Williams, “Social Stratification refers to the ranking of individuals on a scale of
superiority-inferiority-equality, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation.
Melvin M. Tumin, “Social stratification refers to “arrangement of any social group or
society into hierarchy of positions that are unequal with regard to power, property, social
evaluation and psychic gratification”.
3.2 ORIGIN OF STRATIFICATION
Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given as below:
(i) Kingsley Davis lays emphasis on the functional necessity of stratification. According
to him, a society must provide some rewards which it can use as inducements and have
some way of distributing these rewards differently according to position. The rewards
and their distribution, as attached to social positions, create social stratification.
(ii) Professor Sorokin “Attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in
environmental conditions”.
(iii) According to Karl Mrax, “Social factors are responsible for the emergence of
different social strata, i.e. social stratification”.
(iv) According to Gumplowioz “The origin of social stratification is to be found in the
conquest of one group by another”.
(v) According to Spengler, stratification is founded upon scarcity. Short supply or
scarcity is created whenever society differentiates positions in terms of functions and
powers and assigns rights and privileges to them. This makes some positions more
desirable than others for society grades them by their rewards. There are only a few
corporation presidencies or government executive offices available. Stratification
evolves from the allocation of scarce privileges and powers.
Social stratification assumes the form of class divisions in society. In the course of
history, various social classes have existed at different periods. Thus the slaves and
slave-masters, vassals and feudal lords, capitalists and workers have been the
prominent classes. In India, class has assumed a peculiar form in caste.
3.3 Characteristics of Social Stratification
On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social
stratification may have the following characteristics.
1. Social stratification is universal:
There is no society on this world which is free from stratification. Modern stratification
differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide phenomenon. According
to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are stratified.”
2. Stratification is social:
It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority and inferiority.
Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the basis on
which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power, experience,
character, personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities.
Hence, stratification is social by nature.
3. It is ancient:
Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering bonds. In
almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble
and powerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was given
to political, social and economic inequalities.
4. It is in diverse forms:
The forms of stratification is not uniform in all the societies. In the modern world class,
caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type of
stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryas were divided into four
varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras So every society, past or
present, big or small is characterized by diversed forms of social stratification.
5. Social stratification is Consequential:
Social stratification has two important consequences one is “life chances” and the other
one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the “life- chances” of the individuals
but also their “life style”.
The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in
every society. It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental health,
opportunities for education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and
divorce etc.
Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status. Lifestyles include such matters like the residential areas in every community which have
gradations of prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress,
the kinds of books, TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may be
viewed as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from another within the frame work
of a commonly shared over-all culture.
3.4 Elements of Social Stratification:
All stratification systems have some common elements. These elements have been
identified as status differentiation, ranking, evaluation and rewarding. Tumin
following the elements of social stratification.
1. Status Differentiation:
refers
Status differentiation is the process by which social positions are determined and
distinguished from one another by way of associating a distinctive role, a set of rights
and responsibilities such as father and mother. Status differentiation operates more
effectively when:
(1) Tasks are clearly defined.
(2) Authority and responsibility are distinguished.
(3) Mechanism for recruiting and training exists.
(4) Adequate sanctions including rewards and punishment exist to motivate persons.
Responsibilities, resources and rights are assigned to status not to particular individuals.
For only by doing so societies can establish general and uniform rules or norms that will
apply to many and diverse individuals who are to occupy the same status e.g. all the
different women who will play the role of a parent.
2. Ranking: Ranking is the process by which social positions are assigned to one
another by way of associating a distinctive authority and a set of rights and
responsibilities, this is called ranking. Ranking is most important criteria for
understanding the process of Social Stratification. Ranking is done on following
bases:
(i) Personal characteristics such as intelligence, aggressiveness and politeness.
(ii) The skills and abilities that are believed necessary for adequate role performance
such, as surgical, numerical or linguistic skills.
(iii) General qualities of the task handling e.g. difficulty, cleanliness, danger and so forth.
iv) Right peg in right hole: Purpose of ranking is to identify the right person for the right
position.
v) Ranking non-evaluative: jobs are rated as harder or easier, cleaner or dirtier, safer or
more dangerous and people are judged slower, smarter or more skillful than others
without implying that some are socially more important and others less because of
these characteristic.
vi) Ranking is a selective process: Only some statuses are selected for comparative
ranking and of all criteria of ranking only some are actually used in ranking process e.g.
the status of Father-Mother is not ranked.
3. Evaluation:
Differentiation and ranking are further solidified by the evaluation process. Whereas the
ranking procedure pivots about the question of more of or less of, the evaluation
process centres in the question better and worse. Evaluation is both a personal and
societal attribute. That is, individuals assign a relative worth, a degree of preference and
a priority of desirability to everything. There are three dimensions of evaluation:
(i) Prestige:
Which refers to honour and it involves the respectful behaviour. Radcliffe Brown says
that among hunting societies three groups usually are accorded special prestige: the
elderly, those with supernatural powers, those who have special personal attributes
such as hunting skill. In the more advanced society, prestige is the commodity that is in
scarce supply and it is, therefore, more valued.
(ii) Preferability:
Those positions i.e. status roles which are preferred by majority of the people are
evaluated higher e.g. “. I would like to be a doctor.”
(iii) Popularity:
Those status roles which are popular, about which people know to be very prestigious
are evaluated higher e.g. nowadays there is fashion among students to go for
Engineering job. It is the most popular occupation.
4. Rewarding:
Status which are differentiated, ranked and evaluated are allocated differential rewards
in terms of good things in life. Social units such as families, subcultures, social classes
and occupations that are socially differentiated are differentially rewarded in various
ways. Rewards can be of two types:
(i) Abundant/ in Plenty :
Which are spiritual or psychic rather than material and are secured in the process of
role performing e.g. pleasure, love, and respect.
(ii) Scarce:
Social stratification becomes relevant in this area of desired and scarce rewards. In
society where there is an unequal distribution of rewards, those who have power take
hold these rewards. In conclusion it can be said that differentiation, ranking, evaluation
and rewarding are the social process which bring about shape and maintain the system
of stratification.
3.5 Types of social stratification:
Social Stratification can be categorized in following four types i.e.
a) Caste System of Social stratification:
b) Class system of Social stratification
c) Race system of social stratification
d) Slavery – (It does not prevail now so no need to discuss)
3.5.1 Caste: In India, a special type of Social Stratification is in the form of caste. The
caste is an inseparable aspects of the Indian Society. It is peculiarly Indian in origin and
development.
3.5.1.1
Etymological Meaning:
The word “Caste” has its origin form Spanish word ‘casta’ which means “breed, race,
strain or a complex of hereditary qualities”.
3.5.1.2 Definitional Meaning of Caste: Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group
in which a person’s rank and its accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on
the basis of his birth into a particular group i.e. Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and
Sudra Caste.
C.H. Cooley, “When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a caste”.
Willams, “Caste is a system in which an individual’s rank and its accompanying rights
and obligations is ascribed on the basis of birth into a particular group”.
D.N. Mazumdar and T.N. Madan, “Caste is a closed group”.
Concluding we can say that caste is an individual’s rank and its accompanying rights
and obligations is ascribed on the basis of birth/ heredity of the person into a particular
group
3.5.2 Origin of Caste system:
It is difficult to trace the origin of caste system – it originated in India – various theories
to explain the origin of caste system.
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3.5.2.1
Racial theory
Political theory
Occupation theory
Traditional theory
Guild theory
Religious theory
Evolutionary theory
Racial (Varna) Theory:
According to Mazumdar Caste system originated after the arrival of Aryans in India.
Indo-Aryans used the term ‘Varna’ which means ‘colour’. In order to differentiate the
groups of people. They called it Dasa Varna – Dasa people.
Rigvedic literature stresses very significantly the difference between the Arya and
Dasa, not only in their color but also in their speech, religious practices, and physical
features. They divided Brahma, Kshatra and Vaishya – Sudra on the basis of Varna
(race).
Political Theory: According to Political Theory Caste system is a clever device
invented by the Brahmins in order to place themselves on the highest ladder of social
hierarchy. Ghurye state that, “Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo- Aryan culture cradled
in the land of the Ganges and then transferred to other parts of India.”
The major division of society on the bases of caste is as following:

Brahma, Kshatra and Vaishya - Dvija (twice born)

Sudra - Ekjati (once born) based on their duties.
Occupational Theory: Occupation is the base for the origin of caste system. Those
who carried out better and respectable profession were considered superior.
Nesfield views, “Functions and Function alone is responsible for the origin of caste
structure in India.”
On the bases of occupational differentiation there are numerous sub-caste such as
lohar, sonar, chamar, nai, mali etc.,
Traditional Theory: Caste system is of divine (godly) origin. According to this theory
castes were created by Brahma in order to make human beings to harmoniously (part of
body) perform various social functions necessary for the maintenance of society.
Guild Theory: Denzil Ibbetson, consider that caste are modified forms of guilds. It is the
product of interaction of three forces i.e. Tribes, Guilds( a medieval association of
craftsmen or merchants, often having considerable power) and Religion. The priests
followed hereditary and endogamous group.(practice of marrying within a specific ethnic
group, class, or social group, rejecting others on such a basis as being unsuitable for
marriage or for other close personal relationships.) The other guilds also adopted the
same practices and in course of time became caste.
Religious Theory: Hocart and Senart are the two main advocates of religious theory.
Hocart is of the view that its originated on account of religious principles and customs.
Senart, has tried to explain the origin of caste system on the basis of prohibitions
regarding sacramental food.
Evolutionary Theory:
This theory reveals that the caste system did not emerge all of a sudden or at a
particular date, it evolved gradually. The factors, which are responsible for the evolution
of caste system are:
Hereditary occupation: The division of the Indian Society is primarily based on
hereditary occupations.
Faith in Karmas: The intention of the Brahmins was to keep themselves pure. They
spread the beliefs in the ideas of karma and rebirth.
Ideas of exclusive family, ancestor worship and the sacramental meal, racial clashes
and colour prejudices are some other bases of Caste system.
The geographical isolation of Indian peninsula, static nature of Hindu Society, number of
foreign invasions and Rural economic structure also provide sound base of Caste.
FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM
Segmental division of society:
The society is divided into various castes with a well developed life of their own. The
status of a person does not depend on his wealth but on the traditional importance of
the caste.
Social and religious hierarchy:
The Brahmin in India stand at the apex of the social ladder. In difference to the high
position enjoyed by Brahmins and Sudras were subjected to manifold disabilities.
Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse:
Caste is the complex of taboos by which the superior castes try to preserve their
ceremonial purity. The caste have rules are laid down with regard to the kind of food
that can be acceptable by a person and from what castes.
Endogamy:
Every caste is sub-divided into sub-castes, everyone of which forbids its members to
marry persons outside it.
Restricted choice of occupation:
Members of a particular caste are expected to follow the caste occupation. The caste
members did not allow other than own to follow their occupation.
Civil and religious disabilities:
The impure castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city. The public schools did
not admit impure castes person.
Features of caste in India today:
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Restrictions on food habits have been relaxed.
Caste is not very much associated with the hereditary occupation.
Exogamy (inter-caste or inter-religion marriage).
The constitution of India removed and made all caste are equal.
Caste Panchayat have either become very weak.
Touchable and Untouchable is not felt among literate people.
The influence of caste system is slowly decreasing.
Social interaction and social relationships has been establishing in the society
without seeking the caste background.
 It is not dictating individual’s life or its freedom, it is not barrier for the individual’s
progress.
 Industrialization, urbanization, westernization etc., changed the role of caste
system
Merits of caste system:
Spirit of co-operation: Caste system is webbed on the spirit of cooperation. Every
Caste has to depend upon other for their daily works and needs.
Define economic pursuits: Caste system is helpful to define the economic role of
every caste.
Racial purity: Caste system ensure the racial purity of the society by debarring the inter
caste marriages.
Influence intellectual make-up: Caste system has deep impact on the intellectual
make-up of the society.
Integration of the country: Caste system has important role in the national integration.
The caste fiber of the Indian society keep strength to knit India's society in string way.
Provides for various functions: Caste system is a strong base for ensuring
functionality of the society. The division of labour play significant role in providing
various function to a specific caste.
Cultural diffusion: Caste system is helpful in cultural diffusion through inter and intra
caste marriages.
DEMERITS OF CASTE SYSTEM: Caste system has following demerits:
Denies mobility of labour: The rigidity of the caste system is a major barrier for the
mobility of the person form one occupation to another.
Un-touchability: Untouchability is one of the major stigma on the face of Indian society,
which is a contribution of caste system.
Solidarity retarded: Caste system is more solidarity retarded than class system. In
caste system there is no possibility to change the class with any of measure i.e.
education, wealth or change of occupation.
Wrong man in occupation: Caste system is more solidarity retarded and based on
occupation. In caste system person has to pursue the same occupation with any
possibility of change. The provision of caste based reservation results in round peg in
square hole. Selection of wrong person in occupation results in wastage of resources.
Obstacle to national unity: Division of the society on the bases on caste system is
more harmful for national integration, unity and integrity.
Obstacle to social progress: Caste system is major obstacle for social progress. It
divides society on the bases of caste and create obstacle in social mobility. Castism
result in conflict in different caste.
Undemocratic: Democracy is a doctrine which is based on social equality and equity.
But castism create divide and disparity in society which is undemocratic.
SOCIAL CLASS SYSTEM:
Status is a basic criterion of social class. Each particular social class has its own
particular social behaviour, its standards and occupations. It is a culturally defined group,
that is ‘accorded a particular position or status within the population as a whole’. The
relative position of the class in the society arises form the degree of prestige attached to
the society. Status is the basic criterion of social class or, in other words class is a
status group.
Meaning of class:
Class is large set of people regarded by themselves or others as sharing similar status
with regard to wealth, power and prestige. Class is a person's economic position in a
society or a group (set) of people with similar amounts of income and wealth.
Definition of Social Class:
Ogburn and Nimkoff – “A social class in one or two or more broad groups of individuals
who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior
positions”.
Max Webber – “Class or aggregates of individual group, the same exhibited standard of
living”.
In conclusion, class is a groups of individuals who are ranked by the members of the
community in socially superior and inferior positions”.
CRITERION OF CLASS BASED STRATIFICATIONS:
1. Criterion of birth: Birth is an important factor in deciding class of the individual. A
person born in Upper, Middle Or Lower class is a major base of deciding Class .On the
bases of Birth, there are following divisions of the classes:
A) Lower-Middle-Upper
B) Brahamin, Kshatrya, Vaishya and Sudra
2. Criterion of Wealth: This is known as economic base of social
classification/stratification. Wealth is an another criteria for deciding class of the person.
Ancestral possession of wealth or wealth generated by the person with self-efforts
declare class of the person. The wealth based classes are as following:
A) Upper Class: Higher Upper-Middle Upper- Lower Upper
B) Middle Class: Higher Middle -Middle Middle - Lower Middle
C) Lower Class: Higher Lower(Border Line) -Middle Lower(BPL)- Lower Lower(Severe
Poverty)
3. Criterion of occupation: This criterion has three bases of division i.e. Sectorial
Division, Based on work and Category of work:
According to Sectorial Division society can be classified in A) Primary Sector: Labour
Class(Unskilled); B) Secodary Sector: Skilled Worker and C) Tertiary Sector:
Professionals
The second criterion of classification is based on work i.e. Blue Collar & White Collar.
People who are employed in skilled work are non as blue collar and persons who are
employed in administrative jobs are called white collars.
Another classification of society is based on the category of work i.e. A-grade/ First
Class, B-Class/ Second Class,C-Grade/ Third Class and D-Grade/ Fourth Class.
5. Criterion of polity: Political stratification concerns the unequal distribution of
political rewards and inequalities in access to political offices/offices.
Rosario,“Political stratification: a regime featuring political inequalities, with privileged
access to political offices for some. A basic division into rulers and ruled, leaders and
subjects, or elite and commoner groups.’
Another division is local, state and national Leader
6. Criterion of education: Level of education is another major agent of social
stratification. Standard of Education Institution, level of educational degree, Affiliation
level of the institution’s board and type of medium of instruction are some perimeter
of social stratification, which can be explained as below:
A. Differential standard of Educational Institutions:
1. Primary Education: Primary education should seek to satisfy the basic needs of all
people. There should not be any differentiation of curricula at this stage. quality of
educational opportunities at the primary stage requires provision of free and compulsory
education for all children without any discrimination.
2. Secondary Education: Individual differences among boys and girls are more
prominent at the secondary stage diversified curricula should be introduced to cater to
the needs, interests and capabilities of students.
3. Higher Professional Education: At the stage of higher education and professional
education emphasis should be placed on individual capacity or merit and
maintenance of quality and standard.
4. Compensatory Education: Disadvantaged children have an unstimulating
environment. They attend primary schools without prerequisite learning which are
necessary for successful completion of primary education.
B. Type of Schools: The type of school always remain major factor to decide the status
of the person in society. The first perimeter to decide the social status is the type of
school i.e. Common/Community School System- Adarsh School System- Model School
System- Meritorious School System- Kendriya Vidayalya School System- Navodya
Vidayalya School System. Second base of educational Stratification is nature of school
i.e Govt. School –Private School - Day Boarding School - Convent Schools. Third base
of educational stratification is nature of affiliation of school i.e. State Board School,
CBSE School – CSIE Schools. These differences become major source of deciding the
status of the person in society.
Functions of Social Classes: Class system of the society has following functions:
Simplification:
In a society, we deal with many strangers, all of whose characteristics we cannot
possibly know. Therefore, society has started the practice of classifying them and
reacting to them as members of a class.
Motivation and Co-ordination:
The prestige, which is to be accorded to them act as motivating and coordinating
factor which enables a class to perform more readily the functions expected to it.
Vertical Mobility:
Class helps in movement in any or all of the three areas of living; class, occupation and
power involving upward status changes. As teacher promoted to senior scale or to
Principal post is vertical Mobility
Horizontal Mobility:
Changes of residence or job without status change, such as teacher’s leaving one
school to work in another school at same post but on higher scale.
Open system mobility:
Class system permits free movement in status changes. In such a system, status can
be achieved with any discrimination based on sex, religion and caste, mobility is
motivated and encouraged.
Inter-generational mobility:
Class system ensures mobility between generations. Movement between a father’s
generation and a son’s generation. The son of a farmer father is now a Civil servant or a
business executive. The present day industrial society is marked by inter-generational
mobility
RACE:
Race is one of those terms which are used with a variety of meanings. The term
sometimes used as synonymous with nationality; thus French, Chinese, German and
Indian are spoken of as races. Sometimes it has been frequently confused with
language, as well as with religion. Sometimes used to denote the classification of
human beings on the basis of the Skin’s colour such as white race or black race.
Race as a Biological Concept
They are biologically inherited along with such physical characteristics as eye, skin and
hair colour. A group of people individual who posses common hereditary traits which
separate them from other groups. Some writers are of the opinion that the race is based
on heredity because races have been largely intermixed. So the term should be used in
its genetic sense.
Definition of Race:
Green – “A race is a large, biological human groping, with a number of distinctive
inherited characteristics which vary within a certain range.
Biesanz – “A race is a large group of people distinguished by inherited physical
difference”.
Penniman – “Race is a genetic class in which there are many indefinite and mutually
related genetic characteristics”.
Criteria of Racial Classification:
Negroes: with their black skin, projecting jaws, broad nose and curly hair are
categorized as black race.
Melanesians: The Melanesians have a lighter skin and slightly different nose from the
Negro group, but similar skin colour and jaw.
Mongoloid: They may be called as yellow race has lighter skin, prominent cheek bones,
olive shaped eyes and straights black hair.
Aryan: The "Aryan race" was defined as the subgroup of the Caucasian (or Europid)
race consisting of the native speakers of Indo-European languages descended from the
original Proto-Indo-Europeans, that in modern times reside in Europe, Australia, AngloAmerica, Russia, South Africa, Latin America, Iran, Maldives, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Northern India, and Nepal. The race has white skin, brown hair
and sea green or blue eyes, wide forehead and long face.
Caucasians: overlap with other races. The Caucasian race (also Caucasoid or
Europid) is a grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological taxon,
including some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa,
Western Asia, Central Asia and South Asia.
Races in India –
According to Sir Herbert Risley in India following races can be identified:
Pre-Dravidian – primitive tribe of the hills and jungles.
The Dravidian – southern place upto the Gangetic valley.
The Indo-Aryan – Kashmir, Panjab and Rajputana.
The Aryo-Dravidian – Gangetic valley.
The Cytho-Dravidian – East of Indus.
The Mongoloid – Assam and the foot hills of eastern Himalayas.
The Mongolo-Dravidian type beyond that Assam.
Race are genetic basis of social stratification, which is strengthen by environmental
conditions.
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:
For the proper functioning of society, it has to work out some mechanism by which
people engaged in different occupations get different recognition. If each activity is
associated with same type of economic returns and prestige, there will be no
competition for different occupations. Stratification is that system by which different
positions are hierarchically divided. Such a system has given rise to different classes
like Upper, Middle, Working and Lower or caste groups like Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Sudras. The importance of stratification can be seen with regard to the
functions it performs for the individual and society.
I. Importance of Social Stratification for the Individual:
No doubt system of stratification is applicable to the whole society yet it serves some
functions for the individual also.
1. Competition:
Individuals based on their attributes compete with each other and only those individuals
who have better attributes get greater recognition. This may be in the field of sports,
education, occupation etc
2. Recognition of Talent:
The persons with more training skills, experience and education are given better
positions. The deserving individuals are not treated at par with deserving candidates.
Such a system helps people to acquire better talents.
3. Motivation:
The system of stratification motivates the individuals to work hard so that they can
improve upon their social status. It is more true in case of those societies in which
statuses are achieved.
4. Job Satisfaction:
As the jobs are given to the individuals according to their skills and education, the
workers get job satisfaction. In case, a person with higher qualification is not allowed to
move higher in the social ladder, he feels dissatisfied with his job.
5. Mobility:
The system of achieved status also provides an opportunity for upward and downward
mobility. Those persons who work hard and are intelligent move up in the social ladder.
On the other hand, those who fail to come up to the expectations move downward.
Hence, the possibility of change in the position keeps the people always alert and
makes them work hard.
6. Encourages hard work:
One of the main functions of class stratification is to induce people to work hard to live
up to values. Those who best fulfill the values of a particular society are normally
rewarded with greater prestige and social acceptance by others. It is known that
occupations are ranked high if their functions are highly important and the required
personnel are very scarce. Hard work, prolonged training and heavy burden of
responsibility are associated with such occupational positions. People undertaking such
works are rewarded with money, prestige comforts, etc. Still we cannot say that all
those positions which are regarded as important are adequately compensated for.
7. Ensures circulation of elites:
To some extent class stratification helps to ensure what is often called “the circulation of
the elite”. When a high degree of prestige comforts and other rewards are offered for
certain positions, there will be some competition for them. This process of competition
helps to ensure that the more efficient people are able to rise to the top, where their
ability can best be used.
8. Serves an economic function:
The competitive aspect has a kind of economic function in that it helps to ensure the
rational use of available talent. It is also functionally necessary to offer differential
rewards if the positions at the top are largely ascribed as it is in the case of caste
system. Even in caste system the people at the top can lose their prestige if they fail to
maintain certain standards. Hence differential rewards provide the incentives for the
upper classes to work at maintaining their positions.
9. Prevents waste of resources:
The stratification system prevents the waste of scarce resources. The men in the elite
class actually possess scarce and socially valued abilities and qualities, whether these
are inherited or acquired. Because of their possession of these qualities their enjoyment
of some privileges such as extra comfort and immunity from doing menial work, are
functionally justified. It becomes functionally beneficial for the society to make use of
their talents without being wasted.
For Example, it would be a waste to pour the resources of society into the training of
doctors and engineers, and then making them to work as peons and attendants. When
once certain individuals are chosen and are trained for certain difficult positions it would
be dysfunctional to waste their time and energy on tasks for which there is enough
manpower.
10. Stabilises and reinforces the attitudes and skills:
Members of a class normally try to limit their relations to their own class. More intimate
relationships are mostly found between fellow class- members. Even this tendency has
its own function.
It tends to stabilise and reinforce the attitudes and skills that may be the basis of upperclass position. Those who have similar values and interests tend to associate
comfortably with one another. Their frequent association itself confirms their common
values and interests.
11. Helps to pursue different professions or jobs:
The values, attitudes and qualities of different classes do differ. This difference is also
functional for society to some extent. Because society needs manual as well as
nonmanual workers.
Many jobs are not attractive to highly trained or ‘refined’ people for they are socialised to
aspire for certain other jobs. Because of the early influence of family and socialisation
the individuals imbibe in them certain values, attitudes and qualities relevant to the
social class to which they belong. This will influence their selection of jobs.
12. Social Control:
Further, to the extent that ‘lower class’ cultural characteristics are essential to society,
the classes are, of course, functional. In fact, certain amount of mutual antagonism between social classes is also functional. To some extent, upper-class and lower-class
groups can act as negative reference groups for each other. Thus they act as a means
of social control also.
10. Controlling effect on the ‘shady’ world:
Class stratification has another social control function. Even in the ‘shady’ world of
gamblers and in the underworld of lower criminals, black- marketers, racketeers,
smugglers, etc., the legitimate class structure has got respectability.
They know that money is not a substitute for prestige but only a compensation for
renouncing it. Hence instead of continuing in a profitable shady career, such people
want to gain respectability for their money and for their children.
CONFLICT AND EDUCATION
Karl Marx (1818-1883):
Marxian perspective, systems of stratification derive from the relationships of the
social groups to the forces of production. In all the stratified societies, there are
two major social groups: a ruling class and a subject class. The power of the
ruling class derives from its ownership and control of the forces of production.
The ruling class exploits and oppresses the subject class. As a result there is a
basic conflict of interest between the two classes.
Marx focus on social strata rather than social inequality in general. Marx used the
term “class” to refer to the main stratas in all stratification system. A class is a
social group whose members share the same relationship to the forces of
production.
Meaning of Conflict:
Marxism characterized conflict by an economic struggle between the haves and
have-nots. There is a power differences among social classes and special interest
groups fight over scarce resources of society to gain advantages over others. MARX
believed that western societies had developed through following main epochs:
1) Primitive communism
2) Ancient society
3) Feudal society
4) Capitalist society
During each epoch labour power required for production was supplied by the
subject class i.e. slaves, serfs, proletariat. The subject class is made up of the
majority. The subject class is made up of the majority of the population whereas,
the ruling class forms a minority. The relationship between the major social
classes is one of mutual dependence and conflict. However, the mutual
dependency of the two classes is not a relationship of equal or symmetrical
reciprocity, instead it is a relationship of exploiter and exploited, oppressor and
oppressed. Marx argues that capital, as such produces nothing, only labour
produces wealth. Classes emerge when the productive capacity of society
expands beyond the level required for subsistence.
MARX’s SOCIAL CLASSES:
Marx’s said that there are two major classes within industrial capitalism:
i.
The bourgeoisie: Owners of the means of production
ii.
The proletariat: Workers who exchange their labour for a wages and one
Secondary class:
The petite bourgeoisie: Independent owners/ producers (e.g., farmers) and small business
owners known as middle class.
Exploitation of wage labourers was result of surplus value. Surplus value then turned into profits
for owners (i.e., capitalists). Marx specified a number of variables to explain how different
classes develop conflict among themselves.He said the conflict arises among different
classes over economic rewards between the classes. Conflict between major classes
within a mode of production is driving force behind social change. Eventually leads to
evolution of new mode of production. Due to industrialization there is a physical
concentration of masses of people. With development easy communication among the
people in the same class position became possible. Marx believed that the exploited
(class) would become conscious and unite their selves political in organization. This
political organization begins its class struggle to eliminate classes from the society.
Ultimately workers through proletariat revolution elimination capitalism to establish
communism a class less society.
MAX WEBER (1864-1920) AND CONFLICT:
Max Weber agreed with Marx (economics played a central role in power distinction). He
believed in two other factors i.e. Social prestige (Authority) someone could be poor and still hold
a lot of power because of social prestige like Bhagat Puran Singh and Political
influence(Power). He believed that distribution of power and authority is a basis of social
conflict.
People with power want to keep it and people without power want to seek it, result is
class conflict.
LEWIS COSER (1913-2003):
Conflicts between intergroups and intragroups are part of social life. Through that conflict
boundaries between different groups and unity between individual members of that group
determines the power. Conflict is part of relationships and is not necessarily a sign of instability.
Lewis Coser defined conflict as “a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and
resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure, or eliminate their rivals.”
Conflict serves several functions:
1. Leads to social change
2. Can stimulate innovation
3. During threat, can increase central power
Conflict are omnipresent and major agent of social change and lead to innovation and
technological change in society.
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into social classes,
castes and divisions within a society. These hierarchies, which may be overtly
or covertly preset, or not present at all in some societies, are quite common in statelevel societies. In our society we rank people according to the scarce resources they
control. Money and property are scarce resources in our society and those who own a
great deal of money and property, wealthy people, can use this resource to gain power.
It has been said that very respected people also control another scarce resource –
public respect and that they can use this resource to gain power. Political leaders are
likewise powerful because they are in a position to control the members of a political
party. This ranking of people according to their wealth, prestige or party position is
known as Social Stratification. Stratification separates the rich from the poor, the
powerful from the powerless. Those who possess scarce resources have a high rank
and those who do not possess them have a low rank. Our place in the stratification
system influences every part of our lives; where we live, go to school and work; what we
eat how we vote and whom we marry. Our sexual behavior, sports, hobbies and health
are all affected by the rank society gives us. Therefore social stratification is an area of
great interest to sociologists.
EDUCATION AS AN AGENT OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: Education plays a very
important role in maintaining the stratification system and justifying the unequal
distribution of wealth. Like other social systems, schools reflect stratification and
sometimes can be a cause of it. The schools that children attend can have an enormous
influence on their life chances.
EDUCATION A WEAPON TO CREATE SOCIAL INEQUALITY: Education helps to
justify in people’s minds a system of inequality and to reconcile them to their own
position within it. Every child from different stratification has more chance of entering
school and university. Thus, the educational system helps perpetuate social and
economic inequalities across generations. These class differentials can be reinforced by
privatization of education, where money has a great role to play in perpetuating this
disparity
EDUCATION PROVIDE FAIR OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMPETITION: Education
gives everyone a fair chance to prove their worth and as long as privilege and
disadvantage are widely believed to stem from fair competition in the educational arena,
then inequality may appear to be justified by different levels of educational attainment.
EDUCATION IS A BASE FOR UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION: Society is based on an
unequal distribution of advantage and is characterized by a conflict of interests between
the advantaged and the disad-vantaged children from lower class and castes (SCs, STs
and OBCs) who are much less likely to attend the private schools that give better
chances for a good career.
EDUCATION IS A MEASURE OF SOCIAL MOBILITY: The educational system helps
certain poor children (for example, children of SCs, STs and OBCs) to move into middle
class to professional positions, it denies the most disadvantaged children the same
educational opportunities afforded to children of the affluent class. Thus, schools tend to
preserve social class inequalities in each new generation. Education is an important
means to upward mobility. It is not always open to all. In most countries, including India,
students must pass qualifying examination (s) to gain admission in various courses,
such as engineering, medical, architecture, MBA, etc. This system is known as
sponsored mobility. Education is not the only channel to social mobility and class,
cultural and family background, and parental and other support, etc., are also important
variants but lack of education is bound to prove a great handicap in mobility.
EDUCATION SEGREGATE SOCIETY ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC CLASS: Indian
Schools Mostly Nursery and Primary become biased in favour of high-middle and upper
class students. It is seen that these schools are segregated by socio-economic class.
Upper class children join the best private schools, while in government schools mostly
pupils from lower status background are admitted.
EDUCATION A POWERFUL INSTRUMENT OF EQUALITY:
Education works as a powerful instrument of equality. The illiteracy increases inequality
and prevents occupational as well as social mobility. But education helps the person to
improve his/her social and life condition through enhancing skills.
In conclusion we can say that social stratification is a mean to understand the architect
of the society and identify the fabric of the social stuff. Education plays an important role
to filling the gap between different classes by ensuring social mobility and providing fair
opportunities for access, division and distribution of resource to everyone.
EXERCISE FOR PRACTICE
Q1. Define the term Social Stratification. Discuss its characteristics and elements.
Q2. Define the term Social Stratification. What are different types of social stratification.
Q3. Define Caste as form of social stratification. Discuss different theories related to
origin of class system of social stratification.
Q4. Define term ‘Caste’. Discuss its features, merits and demerits.
Q5. . Define term ‘Class’. What are different criterions of class based stratification? Also
discuss its functions.
Q6. Define ‘Race’ as form of social stratification. Explain major functions of social
stratification.
Q7. Define the term conflict. Discuss role of education in Social Stratification.
Q8. Write short note on:
a) Social stratification
b) Caste
c) Class
d) Race
e) Conflict
f) Elements of Social Stratification
g) Theories of origin of caste
h) Criterion of Social Class
i) Types of Social Stratification