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Sufism: A Look into the History of Islamic Mysticism
Corey B. Sims
HIST 383-01
Nabil Al-Tikriti
University of Mary Washington, November 20, 2009
"I hereby declare upon my word of honor that I have neither given nor received unauthorized help on this work."
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Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Islam spread across the Middle East at
a furious pace under the leadership of the first caliphs. Before too long, however, internal
struggles began to arise within the Muslim community, and an ensuing power struggle arose.
As different parties jostled for supremacy the Islamic empire continued to grow, and
subsequently grew more and more in material wealth. With the ever increasing size of the
empire, some individuals began to feel that the caliphate had become too concerned with the
material things of the world and had forgotten the true meaning of Islam that had been
revealed to them by Muhammad. The reaction to this was a movement came to be known as
Sufism. Although, for some time it remained a minor religious movement, it eventually
pervaded the entire Muslim Empire and played a major role in maintaining a sense of unity in it
throughout tumultuous political periods.
The Sufi movement traces its origins back to early ascetics who, in reaction to the
growing materialism of the caliphate, “renounced” the world and sought to become closer to
God through living righteous, pious lives.1 These ascetics lived humbly, often secluded, and
often dressed very modestly only wearing a simple wool garment. The popular consensus
among scholars is that the term Sufi originated from the Arabic root suf, meaning “wool”.2
Other theories do exist on the origin of the term, but they do not seem to hold as much ground
the wool hypothesis.3 No matter the case it is certain that these early ascetics were attempting
to imitate the ways of the Prophet and his earliest followers.
1
Julian Baldick, Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism. (New York: New York University Press, 1989),
2
Frederick Denny, An Introduction to Islam 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2006),
29.
212.
3
Denny lists a few of these. Also see Fadhlalla Haeri, The Elements of Sufism. (Rockport, Massachusetts:
Element Inc., 1993), 1.
3
Perhaps the most notable of these early ascetics was al-Hasan al-Basri, who lived in the
early part of the eighth century. Apart from the Prophet himself, and the Righteous Caliphs, alHasan al-Basri was one of the few individuals viewed by all future Sufis as an “inspiration.”4
Another key individual that was a source of inspiration for early Sufis was Ibrahim ibn Adham,
who was believed to have forsaken his royal status and taken up a life of poverty, and piety. 5 It
is also noteworthy to mention here that women also played in the development of Sufism from
its earliest times.6 A notable female ascetic, Rabi‘a al-‘Adawiya, is credited with introducing the
major Sufi characteristic of a loving relationship between God and humans.7
Following the examples of the early ascetics, the first Sufis developed Ways, or turuq, (in
its singular form tariqa), in which they followed in the hopes of reaching their full spiritual
capabilities.8 The first stage in the development and spread of Sufism was that of masterdisciple relationship. In this stage disciples would follow a master of the Way in hopes of
learning from observing his practices.9 According to Trimingham,10 these were very loose
groups and members did much travelling around seeking masters. That is until the
development of Sufi establishments, known as ribat or khanaqah, which were in effect hostel
or rest-houses for travelling Sufis that came to be Sufi convents.11
4
5
Denny, 218-219.
Ibid., 220; John Renard, Historical Dictionary of Sufism, (Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2005),
117.
6
The role of women in Sufism will be discussed further at a later point in this work.
Denny, 219; Vernon Egger, A History of the Muslim World to 1405, (Upper Saddle, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, 2004), 124.
8
J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam with Foreword by John O. Voll, (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1998), 1-2.
9
Ibid., 4.
10
J. Spencer Trimingham is the leading scholar, at least in the English language, on the subject of the
development of Sufism and its different orders. Most of the information on the matter in this work is taken from
him given his expertise on the subject.
11
Trimingham, 5.
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4
Another type of establishment that arose were retreats of spiritual leaders where followers
could come to study under a Sufi master. These retreats were referred to as a khalwa or
zawiya. Even with the creation of these establishments, for some time, the Sufis remained a
loose collection of individuals, not particularly belonging to an organized group. 12
The next phase in the development of Sufism shifted its focus towards spiritual leaders.
Sufi centers became focused around individual director and his personal Way, or tariqa.
Followers began swearing allegiance to individual directors with distinct doctrines and rituals.
With this being said, it should be noted that even though there were new branches being
created, the Sufis were not breaking from orthodox the orthodox institution of Islam. 13 The
result of this shift towards following an individual spiritual leader was the formation of distinct
Sufi orders. While there were numerous orders that arose, for our purposes it is best to just
discuss a few of the major ones. These are some of the most prominent orders that arose
across the empire: the Suhrawardi, Rifa‘i, Qadiri, Bektashi, Malami, Kubrawi, Yasavi,
Naqshbandi, and Chisti.14 Many of these also had “suborders” that sprang up and branched out
even further.
The continued growth experienced by Sufism could not have occurred without the
works of some key individuals. One of the earliest figures whose works had a lasting impression
on the Sufism was Junayd. Junayd was accredited with producing the idea of fana, which refers
to the “annihilation” of the self, or “cessation of being,” after which an individual was left with
nothing else but life in God, or baqa.15
12
Ibid.
Ibid., 11.
14
Ibid., 31-64.
15
Denny, 226.
13
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Junayd wrote that in order to attain baqa, an individual had to undergo constant purification
and achieve different “stations” and “states” on the Way in order to reach this goal.16 The
ideas of Junayd remained at the core of Sufi thought throughout its history.
Another figure who was important to the development of Sufism was al-Hallaj. He was
a student of Junayd for a short period before splitting from his master over some
disagreements.17 Hallaj emphasized that religious rituals were merely mechanical and that the
only part of them that had an value was their inner meaning.18 Because of these beliefs Hallaj
was viewed as a threat by the orthodox religious leaders, and was executed as a heretic.19
Although Hallaj had his followers, he was most influential in the development of Sufism in that
he made it clear that Sufi doctrine could not risk breaking from the orthodox religion and hope
to survive.
One of the most important figures in the development of Sufism was al-Gazali. His
works were mainly concerned with philosophy and he, in fact, never contributed anything
substantial to the actual content Sufism.20 Through his works though he made the argument
that traditional religious obligations, such as following Shari‘a, combined with living piously and
undergoing the “mystical experience” that one attained heaven.21 Because he was a widely
respected figure, he had been the head professor at the Nizamiya22 in Baghdad and was a lead
figure in philosophy of his time, his work led to a more public acceptance of Sufism.
16
Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam. (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press,
1975), 58-59.
17
Egger, 127.
18
Ibid., 126.
19
Denny, 229-230.
20
Egger, 205.
21
Ibid.
22
The first Islamic university
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Other noteworthy figures who played major roles in the development of Sufism include
Umar al-Suhrawardi, who was appointed by an Abbasid Caliph as the leaders of a ribat.23
Suhrawardi was important in that fact that his placement as a leader of a Sufi convent by the
the Caliph showed clearly how Sufism had grown to become institutionalized as common part
of the Muslim world.24 He was also notable in that he seems to be the individual with whom
the idea of having a sisila, or spiritual genealogy, which became an important aspect of the Sufi
orders.25
It is also necessary to note that poetry played a major role in Sufism. Among its leading
poets were Rumi, Ibn al-‘Arabi, and Ibn al-Farid. The works of theses individuals were a
tremendous source of inspiration to followers of Sufism. The works of Rumi, at least in the
Persian speaking part of the empire, were “second in importance only to the Qur’an as an
inspirational text;” and Ibn al-‘Arabi was referred to as al-shaykh al-akbar (“Great Master”) by
generations succeeding him.26 It is clear that these individuals were regarded with the utmost
admiration by contemporary and later Sufis.
Now that some of the key figures have been discussed and how Sufism developed from
an individual movement to that of mainstream institution, let us examine the actual doctrine
and beliefs of the movement. As has been previously stated, the ultimate goal of the Sufis was
to attain a spiritual connection or “oneness” with God. The Sufis went about achieving this
oneness with God by reaching a succession of spiritual stations and states.
23
Egger, 207.
Schimmel, 245.
25
Egger, 207.
26
Ibid., 212-213.
24
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The Sufis reached these stations and states by practicing different rituals.27 The cornerstone of
these rituals was dhikr, which refers to the recollection or remembrance of one’s relationship
with God, often by repeatedly reciting the name of God. The ritual of dhikr varied from order to
order. Some orders practiced it through silent meditation, while others included group dancing
and singing in their rituals.28 Different Sufi orders believed in a variation of different lists of
stations and states. Some orders had very brief lists, while others had very lengthy lists of
stations and states numbering to that of a hundred.29 In his book, Sufism, An Account of the
Mystics of Islam, renowned Sufi historian A.J. Arberry provides an example of one the shorter
lists of stations and states. It includes seven stations (conversion, abstinence, renunciation,
poverty, patience, trust in God, satisfaction) and ten states (meditation, nearness to God, love,
fear, hope, longing, intimacy, tranquility, contemplation, certainty).30
Going back to an idea touched on early in this work is the role of women in Sufism.
Although some of the first followers of the Prophet Muhammad were females, as time went by,
the role of women in the rituals and leadership of Islam steadily diminished. Sufism provided a
way for women to partake in religious rituals and even hold positions of leadership, at least
among female circles.31 There are numerous reports of convents for women, and of women
leading female Sufi spheres.32 There is evidence suggesting that women contributed
significantly to the Sufi tradition.33 From this it can be said that, although it definitely was not a
feminist movement, or concerned with gender equality, Sufism did provide women with the
opportunity to participate in the religious community that they otherwise were excluded from.
27
For a more in depth discussion of Sufi rituals see Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam.
Renard, 198.
29
Ibid., 227-228.
30
A.J. Arberry, Sufism, An Account of the Mystics of Islam (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1950), 79.
31
Egger, 309.
32
Trimingham, 18, 232.
33
A notable work on this subject is Women of Sufism: A Hidden Treasure by Camille Helmisnki. It is a
collection of writings and stories by, and concerning, female Sufis throughout history.
28
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As is the case with most movement throughout history, Sufism reached its peak and
then fell steadily into decline. It reached its zenith during the time of Rumi, Ibn al-‘Arabi, and
Ibn al-Farid.34 From this point on the movement steadily decayed as it became evermore
institutionalized and corrupt, straying from the virtues of piety and focus on God. The following
excerpt found in Arberry’s work highlights a marked shift in Sufi leaders away from the original
virtues centered on piety:
Not only did the popular “saints” exhibit the utmost contempt for the
ritual obligations of Islam, so that they made boast of not performing the
prayers – and one, Barakat al-Khaiyat, on being pressed by the Mufti and
Ulema of the Azhar to them to Friday prayer, obliged them by performing
ablutions in filthy water – but they also treated the secular rulers of the
country with outrageous impertinence.35
This is not to say that the entire Sufi movement became corrupted and fell into decay, there
still were individuals who led righteous lives and followed the examples of the early Sufis for
centuries to come, but the movement would never again be as influential and pervasive as it
had been during its height.36
In conclusion, Sufism grew out of a back to basics movement initiated by ascetics who
were displeased with the way in which the leadership of the Muslim Empire was conducting
itself. Early followers of the movement sought guidance from masters in an effort to become
spiritually closer to God. These masters were often based in convents on the outskirts of the
empire, but also found scatted throughout its entirety. This helped with spread the religion of
Islam throughout the frontiers of the empire and provided a stable source of unity for the
people, opposed to the almost constant political struggles that took place throughout the
history of the Muslim Empire. The Sufi movement continually grew with the help of many
34
Aberry, 119.
Ibid., 120.
36
Ibid., 123-33
35
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notable scholars and intellectuals and eventually became a significant component of Muslim
society throughout the empire. After it reached its peak with the aid of such personalities as
Rumi and others, it fell into decline and, although it still has orders in present times, it has
never been as nearly as widespread or significant as it once was. In its glory days however, it
played a significant role in Islamic society and religious thought.
Works Cited
Arberry , A.J. Sufism, An Account of the Mystics of Islam. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd,
1950.
Baldick, Julian. Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism. New York: New York University Press,
1989.
Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 2006.
Egger, Vernon O. A History of the Muslim World to 1405. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 2004
Haeri, Fadhlalla. The Elements of Sufism. Rockport, Massachusetts: Element Inc., 1993.
Helminski, Camille A. Women of Sufism: A Hidden Treasure/Selected and Edited by Camille A.
Helminski. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc., 2003.
Renard, John. Historical Dictionary of Sufism. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2005.
Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of North
Carolina Press, 1975
Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam with Foreword by John O. Voll. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1998