Download the chapter in perspective

Chapter 7
The Empires of Persia
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Classical Persian society has its origins in the sixth century B.C.E. with the rise of the dynasty of
the Achaemenids (558–330 B.C.E.) under Cyrus the Great. Later rulers such as Cambyses, Darius, and
Xerxes created the largest, most stable, and in many ways most tolerant empire of its age. The Persian
political, social, and religious influences transcended the centuries. Eventually the Achaemenids were
followed by the Seleucids (323–83 B.C.E.), the Parthians (247 B.C.E.–224 C.E.), and finally the Sasanids
(224–651 C.E.). When the Sasanids were defeated by Islamic invaders in 651 a new age in Persian history
dawned.
OVERVIEW
The Rise and Fall of the Persian Empires
Two related Indo-European tribes, the Persians and Medes, migrated into Persia in the centuries
before 1000 B.C.E. Although these tribes originally had limited political organization, they were great
horsemen and militarily powerful. Expansion began under the Achaemenids during the reign of Cyrus,
known both for his brilliance at military strategy and his enlightened and tolerant view of empire. Areas
such as Media, Lydia, Bactria, and Babylonia fell to Cyrus. Later Cambyses added Egypt, and Darius, the
greatest of all Persian kings, extended the empire in the east into northern India and in the west into Thrace
and Macedonia. The Achaemenids used an efficient bureaucracy and an elaborate spy network to maintain
order. The empire reached its peak under Darius, who made use of regularized tax levies, centralized
coinage, and an elaborate law code. The Persian Royal Road was the centerpiece of an expansive road
system that allowed for easy communication.
The Achaemenid state began to decline under Xerxes, who displayed little of the toleration of his
predecessors such as Cyrus or Darius. The Persian Wars (500–479 B.C.E.) with Greece, while hardly a
devastating defeat for the huge Persian empire, marked an end to the period of expansion. Alexander of
Macedon’s invasion in 334 B.C.E. brought about the end of Achaemenid rule. Alexander claimed the
Persian kingship and hence a continuation of power, but his early death prevented any true, lasting
unification. The empire fell to pieces. Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals, started the Seleucid state,
which included most of the old Achaemenid Empire. The Seleucids eventually fell to the Romans in 83
B.C.E. Even before this, however, the Seleucids had lost Iran to the Parthians and their most powerful king,
Mithridates I. The Parthian state, centered around Ctesiphon, lasted until their conquest by the Sasanids in
224 C.E. Claiming to be the true heirs of the Achaemenids, the Sasanids would reach their peak under
Shapur I. For a time the Sasanids stood as serious rivals to the later Romans. Arabic warriors brought
about the end of the Sasanid dynasty in 651 C.E.
Imperial Society and Economy
The demands of empire forced the Achaemenids to leave behind the simple political and social
structures of their early nomadic past. To run an empire the size of the Persian state it was necessary to
create a class of educated bureaucrats, including tax collectors, record keepers, and translators. A more
sedentary agricultural existence led to the rise of profound differences between rich and poor. A complex
society of both free citizens and slaves developed. The formation of such a huge, unified empire was a
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tremendous boost to trade. A rich trade network carried goods through the Persian empires from India,
Mesopotamia, Iran, Anatolia, Phoenicia, Arabia, Greece, Ethiopia, and Egypt.
Religions of Salvation in Classical Persian Society
In addition to items such as grain, textiles, spices, gold, and ivory, religious concepts were traded
back and forth across the Persian empires. In their early stages the Persians worshipped nature gods and
performed ceremonies similar to those of their Indo-European cousins in India, the Aryans. A profound
change occurred through the philosophies of the seventh-century thinker Zarathustra. His philosophy was
preserved by priests, known as magi, through the Avestas and Gathas. Zarathustra saw the universe and the
human soul as a battleground between Ahura Mazda, who represented good and truth, and Angra Mainyu,
who stood for evil and deception. This philosophy emphasized the significance of every individual’s
choice because there would be a final judgment. Zarathustra did not tell his followers to renounce the
world, but instead viewed the world as a material blessing from Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrianism eventually
became the main religion of the Achaemenids but mainly spread throughout the empire on its own merits.
The Sasanids later used Zoroastrianism as a means of emphasizing their connection to the earlier
Achaemenids. Although worship of Zoroastrianism declined after the Islamic invasion in the seventh
century C.E., the main philosophies of Zarathustra survived the centuries and influenced Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam.
ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION
Because of its influence on Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the origins and nature of
Zoroastrianism would be a good subject for discussion. You can start with examples from the Avestas or
Gathas or with the section in the textbook on good and evil. Questions about the duality of good and evil
and about each individual’s role in determining his or her salvation should ring familiar to the students. At
the same time, the students should be able to see that Zarathustra’s view of the material world as a gift from
Ahura Mazda is obviously different from the more ascetic approach of other religions, such as Hinduism.
One of the best approaches to facilitate discussion would be to ask the students to consider the
different strategies of rule that they have seen up to this point in the class. This discussion is useful in
comparing the Persians to the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, but especially so in regard to the Assyrians.
While the Persians may have copied some of the Assyrian ruling techniques, their emphasis on toleration
compared to the Assyrian ruthless use of terror helps explain why the Persian empire lasted so long.
Depending on how you have arranged the class, you could conduct similar comparisons between India,
with the reigns of Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka, and China, with the approaches of Shihuangdi and
the later Han.
You could also discuss the question of historical influences with your students. Passages from
Herodotus’s Histories are a natural approach here. Herodotus feared the Persians, but he also admired
them. While some Greeks praised the Persians and their accomplishments, there was also a fear of Persian
power. You might ask the students to consider how we know the things we know about history. Another
way to look at the issue of influence is to ask the students to consider the role that historians have played in
creating the current worldview. Compare the Greek interpretation of the Persians with the interpretation of
the Persians in the Old Testament to show how diametrically opposed opinions can be at times. This topic
allows the students to see how historical interpretations can be subjective and can also change.
LECTURE STRATEGIES
All too often in a class as expansive as world history, the individual runs the danger of being
overshadowed. Consequently, it is always nice to take the opportunity to bring characters such as Cyrus,
Darius, or Xerxes into the lecture. Herodotus, although Greek, does a fairly good job of giving a balanced
account of the Persians and their accomplishments. The authors of the text make good use of Herodotus at
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the beginning of the textbook chapter to recount the story of Croesus and Cyrus. This story is just one of
many that can be drawn from Herodotus. Since the authors have already made use of Herodotus this
discussion can serve as an effective introduction to his work. The story of the Median king Astyages and
his prophetic dreams about his daughter Mandane and her son Cyrus is a student favorite. Certainly the
scene of Xerxes sitting on his throne and watching the disaster at Salamis is one of the great images of the
ancient world. Such examples serve to make this period in history more real to the students. Even if the
stories of Herodotus are not exactly accurate, you can discuss the role of the historian in not only recording
history but also shaping it.
A great approach to understanding the significance of the Persians is to discuss the notion of
toleration that is so much a part of the ruling philosophy of kings such as Cyrus and Darius. For far too
long historians struggled with a negative view of the Persians left over from the European and American
fascination with the Greeks. In this light events such as the Persian Wars took on the form of epic battles
between the “good” Greeks and the “evil” Persians without any sense that in many ways the Persians were
far more tolerant and enlightened rulers than the Greeks. The Greeks habit of equating foreigners with
barbarians stands in stark contrast to the cosmopolitan nature of the Persians. This is not to say, of course,
that the world would be a better place if the Persians had won the Persian Wars (far too much of later
history is dependent on Greek contributions), but it’s important to create and maintain a more balanced
view of world history.
It is also important for the students to understand the size and astonishing diversity of the Persian
Empire. The Persians were doing something that had never been done before. Even the Assyrian empire
paled in comparison to the Persian Empire’s size and longevity and historical importance. Many of the
techniques of the Achaemenids would be repeated countless times over the centuries. Few empires,
including the later Roman state, have been as multicultural as that of the Persians. The key in any
discussion should center around what the Persians did to maintain an empire this large for as many years as
they did.
It is important for the students to understand Zarathustra’s philosophy and the basic tenets of
Zoroastrianism. One of the greatest contributions of the Persians was the thought of Zarathustra. Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam were definitely influenced by Zoroastrian traditions. Zoroastrianism is one of the
few religions from the ancient world still practiced in the modern age. Even considering this connection,
however, students often struggle with religious concepts different from their own. Consequently, it is
essential to lay a solid foundation for this section. Finally, thefact that the Persian royal families allowed
the religion to spread throughout the empire on its own merit speaks to the basic toleration that was so
much a part of the Persian tradition.
GROUP ACTIVITIES
1.
Imagine that your group is a committee of engineers and architects organized by Darius to design his
great capital city of Persepolis. What ancient cities would you use as models? What structures would
have to be included and why? Check your plans against the actual site by visiting one of the many
websites on Persepolis.
2.
Imagine that one of you is a bureaucrat, one a free peasant, one a merchant trader, one a priest, and one
a slave. Recreate an argument supporting the position that you are the most indispensable to the
success and prosperity of the Persian Empire.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR RESOURCES
Besides the works cited in the chapter bibliography, you might find the following books helpful:
Bar-Kochva, Bazalel, The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns.
Boardman, John. Persia and the West: An Archaeological Investigation of the Genesis of Achaemenid
Persian Art.
Boardman, John. The Cambridge Ancient History: Persia, Greece, and the Western Mediterranean, c. 525–
479 B.C.
Boyce, Mary, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices.
Brosius, Maria. Women in Ancient Persia.
Browne, Edward G. A Literary History of Persia: From the Earliest Times until Firdawsi (to 1000 A.D.).
Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Faith.
Curtis, Vesta and Robert Hillenbrand (eds.). The Art and Archaeology of Ancient Persia: New Light on the
Parthian and Sasanian Empires.
Dhalla, Maneckji N. History of Zoroastrianism.
Green, Peter. The Greco-Persian Wars; John Curtis, Ancient Persia.
Herzfield, Ernst. Zoroaster and His World.
Kriwaczek, Paul. In Search of Zarathustra : Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First
Prophet .
Kuhrt, Amelie (ed.). Hellenism in the East: Greek and Non-Greek Civilization from Syria to Central Asia
after Alexander.
Lowe, W. D. Herodotus: The Wars of Greece and Persia.
Malandra, William. An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religious Readings from the Avesta and
Achaemenid Inscriptions.
Muhsen Afnan, Ruhi. Zoroaster’s Influence on Greek Thought.
Nanavutty, Piloo. Gathas of Zarathustra: Hymns in Praise of Wisdom.
Nigosian, S. A. The Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research.
Olmstead, Arthur T. History of the Persian Empire.
Potts, D. T. The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity: From the Prehistory to the Fall of the Achaemenid Empire.
Shaked, Shaul. From Zoroastrianism Iran to Islam: Studies in Religious History and Intellectual Contacts.
Sherwin-White, Susan. From Samarkand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire.
Welles, H. B.. Royal Correspondence in the Hellenistic Period.
Yamauchi, Edwin. Persia and the Bible.
The following films from the Films for the Humanities and Sciences should prove useful: Struggle
for the Seas: The Development of Fighting Ships, The Minds of Men.
The following selections from the McGraw-Hill PRIMIS World Civilization Document Database
should prove useful: Herodotus, Histories.
FILMS
Battles That Changed the World: The Greek-Persian Wars (1997). Madacy Entertainment
The 300 Spartans (1962). Starring Richard Egan and Ralph Richardson,
Altars of the World (1999). VHS, New York, NY: Wellspring Media: Distributed by Fox Lorber
Associates, On Zoroastrianism.
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