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Geology 2017 Subject Outline Stage 2 2017 is the last year for teaching Stage 2 Geology. Published by the SACE Board of South Australia, 60 Greenhill Road, Wayville, South Australia 5034 Copyright © SACE Board of South Australia 2010 First published 2010 Reissued for 2011 (published online October 2010, printed January 2011), 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 ISBN 978 1 74102 586 6 (online Microsoft Word version) ref: A544829 This subject outline is accredited for teaching at Stage 2 from 2011 CONTENTS Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 Subject Description .......................................................................................................... 1 Capabilities ...................................................................................................................... 1 Literacy in Geology .......................................................................................................... 3 Numeracy in Geology ...................................................................................................... 3 Ethical Study and Research ............................................................................................ 4 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Knowledge, Cultures, and Perspectives ............... 4 Learning Scope and Requirements..................................................................................... 6 Learning Requirements ................................................................................................... 6 Geological Investigation Skills ......................................................................................... 6 Content .......................................................................................................................... 12 Assessment Scope and Requirements ............................................................................. 29 Evidence of Learning ..................................................................................................... 29 Assessment Design Criteria .......................................................................................... 29 School Assessment ....................................................................................................... 30 External Assessment ..................................................................................................... 33 Performance Standards ................................................................................................. 34 Assessment Integrity ..................................................................................................... 38 Support Materials .............................................................................................................. 39 Subject-specific Advice .................................................................................................. 39 Advice on Ethical Study and Research ......................................................................... 39 INTRODUCTION SUBJECT DESCRIPTION Geology is a 20-credit subject at Stage 2. In Geology, students acquire knowledge of geological principles and concepts. They develop the ability to use that knowledge to identify questions, issues, opportunities, and challenges, and to gain new knowledge through their own investigations. Students develop the skills and abilities to explain geological phenomena and to draw evidencebased interpretations from the investigation of geology-related issues. In this way they develop geological literacy skills that will assist them in the pursuit of various career pathways. Students of Geology are better informed about the ways in which daily life is affected by geological phenomena, which contributes to their ability to live and work as reflective citizens. By exploring the processes that have formed the Earth and are still changing it, geologists debate and advance understanding of the world and how human actions may affect its future. In Geology, students have the opportunity to engage with the work of practising geologists and to participate in and/or initiate debates about how geology impacts on their own lives and on society and the environment. Research geologists use an inquiry approach. They gather information, evaluate evidence, synthesise new knowledge, and apply their learning to related ideas and issues. Students undertaking Geology apply these approaches to develop their knowledge, skills, and understanding. CAPABILITIES The capabilities connect student learning within and across subjects in a range of contexts. They include essential knowledge and skills that enable people to act in effective and successful ways. The five capabilities that have been identified are: communication citizenship personal development work learning. The capabilities for learning and communication are the focus of the learning requirements, supporting students’ development of skills in working geologically to acquire, understand, and apply geological knowledge, and are reflected in the performance standards. Through the capabilities for citizenship and work, students develop an appreciation of the issues and ideas described in the content and learn to apply geology in a broad, holistic manner. The capability for personal development is Stage 2 Geology Subject Outline 2017 1 reflected in the learning requirements and content pertaining to the development of students’ opinions and self-evaluation. Communication In this subject, students develop their capability for communication by, for example: accessing, using, and presenting information and ideas in different formats, using the terminology and conventions of geology learning communication approaches for use with specific audiences and for a range of purposes developing specific literacy and numeracy skills in geology using information and communication technologies to gather, sort, analyse, and display data and information constructing knowledge through communication with others using various communication strategies for both cooperative and independent learning. Citizenship In this subject, students develop their capability for citizenship by, for example: understanding diverse local and global cultural perspectives on and values relating to geological concepts developing an understanding of and a concern for preferred futures for social and environmental sustainability using geological knowledge, processes, and evidence to support responsible social, political, economic, and legal participation in community and environmental issues working ethically with others and in the environment. Personal Development In this subject, students develop their capability for personal development by, for example: developing purpose, direction, and decision-making about personal futures, with reference to geology appreciating their place in the world of geology acquiring skills of persistence, reflection, and self-evaluation acquiring an appreciation of risk and its implications for decision-making. Work In this subject, students develop their capability for work by, for example: acquiring skills and competencies such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and numeracy that improve employability in a range of career pathways, including those that are geology-related participating responsibly, actively, and safely in geology-related school, community, and work activities working individually, and also collaboratively in teams 2 Stage 2 Geology Subject Outline 2017 learning how to deal with a world changing at an increasing rate because of developments in all areas of science and technology. Learning In this subject, students develop their capability for learning by, for example: acquiring skills in accessing, organising, and using geological data and synthesising information into knowledge acquiring the ability to respond to challenges in relation to geological learning and issues engaging in critical, creative, innovative, and reflective thinking, inquiry, and problem-solving applying geological knowledge and skills understanding how the body of geological knowledge changes over time and is influenced by people, including research geologists, the media, society, and governments. LITERACY IN GEOLOGY Students have opportunities to develop specific literacy skills through their learning in Geology. These skills enable students to: communicate within and beyond the geological community, using the terminology and conventions of geology access and critically read and summarise geological texts summarise geological information, using formats appropriate to an audience select and use formats appropriate to their purpose and audience develop and display skills in the use of web-based presentations and visual, written, and oral texts. NUMERACY IN GEOLOGY Students have opportunities to develop specific numeracy skills through their learning in Geology. These skills enable students to: use measurement tools and units appropriate to the task display data, using appropriate geological conventions manipulate data into new formats evaluate and interpret field measurements and other data critically evaluate findings and/or recommendations of a study in light of the numerical evidence presented predict trends and/or outcomes from data collected analyse data in order to supply evidence for or against a given proposal use relevant technology, such as spatial patterning and geographic information systems (GIS). Stage 2 Geology Subject Outline 2017 3 ETHICAL STUDY AND RESEARCH Advice for students and teachers on ethical study and research practices is available in the guidelines on the ethical conduct of research in the SACE on the SACE website (www.sace.sa.edu.au). Health, Safety, and Welfare Conducting outdoor activities and handling a range of chemicals and equipment require appropriate health, safety, and welfare procedures. Information about these procedures is available from the school sectors. Ethical and Safety Practices in Fieldwork The following ethical and safety practices must be observed in all fieldwork: Obtain permission if conducting fieldwork on private land and Indigenous lands. Be environmentally sensitive in deciding where to collect samples and the amount of samples needed. Do not collect specimens or cause damage when visiting conservation sites. Follow safety procedures when observing features on sides of roads and in road cuttings. Use appropriate safety gear when visiting quarries and collecting samples. Observe care when visiting coastal areas to minimise the risk posed by freak waves. Safety Practices in the Laboratory The following safety practices must be observed in all laboratory work: Use equipment only under the direction and supervision of a teacher or other qualified person. Follow safety procedures when preparing or manipulating apparatus. Use appropriate safety gear when preparing or manipulating apparatus. ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER KNOWLEDGE, CULTURES, AND PERSPECTIVES In partnership with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, and schools and school sectors, the SACE Board of South Australia supports the development of highquality learning and assessment design that respects the diverse knowledge, cultures, and perspectives of Indigenous Australians. The SACE Board encourages teachers to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge and perspectives in the design, delivery, and assessment of teaching and learning programs by: providing opportunities in SACE subjects for students to learn about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures, and contemporary experiences recognising and respecting the significant contribution of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to Australian society 4 Stage 2 Geology Subject Outline 2017 drawing students’ attention to the value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge and perspectives from the past and the present promoting the use of culturally appropriate protocols when engaging with and learning from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and communities. Stage 2 Geology Subject Outline 2017 5 LEARNING SCOPE AND REQUIREMENTS LEARNING REQUIREMENTS The learning requirements summarise the knowledge, skills, and understanding that students are expected to develop and demonstrate through their learning in Stage 2 Geology. In this subject, students are expected to: 1. identify and formulate questions, hypotheses, concepts, and/or purposes that may guide geological investigations, and design such investigations 2. conduct collaborative and individual geological investigations, using appropriate observations, records, and interpretations of geological phenomena 3. use technology and numeracy skills to represent, analyse, interpret, and evaluate geological investigations 4. analyse and critically evaluate geological ideas from different sources and present informed conclusions and personal views on social, ethical, and environmental issues 5. communicate knowledge and understanding of geological concepts, relationships, and information, using appropriate geological terms and conventions 6. demonstrate and apply geological knowledge and understanding to a range of contexts and problems and present alternative explanations. GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION SKILLS Conceptual knowledge and understanding in Geology are supported through geological inquiry and communication about geological phenomena. Students undertake geological investigations — field, practical, and issues-based — to develop their knowledge and understanding. Data and information, including observations, from these investigations provide the evidence on which decisions can be made. Geological investigations may be carried out by students through individual and/or collaborative tasks. Practical Investigations Students collect and interpret their own data in practical investigations that involve a range of activities and experimentation. They develop and select investigable questions and measurable hypotheses, collect data using appropriate equipment and measurement skills, display and analyse data, and present conclusions appropriate to the initial question or hypothesis. Students critically evaluate the outcomes of practical investigations and consider a range of explanations for their observations. Literacy and numeracy skills are developed by questioning, displaying, and analysing data, and by communicating outcomes. Experiments are a part of practical and field investigations in Geology. 6 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Issues Investigations In issues investigations, students use information from different sources, which may include primary source data they generate themselves such as observations and measurements made in the field. Students develop questions for investigation, undertake research approaches, and collect evidence to inform their investigations. They learn to think critically and reflectively when relating their evidence to the issue under investigation. They describe the different views people hold on an issue, based on the evidence they collect. Teachers assist students to develop a framework within which an investigation is undertaken. Frameworks developed around the assessment design criteria enable students to present the most suitable evidence of their learning. Communication A vast amount of information is available on a wide range of geology-related topics, and many means exist for obtaining that information. Students have opportunities to become proficient in a range of techniques for obtaining and evaluating information. Students use a variety of information and communication technologies to collect, manipulate, and display data and to present the findings of their investigations. In geological investigations it is important that procedures and results are open to scrutiny. This requires the clear and accurate communication of the details of an investigation. In this subject, communication skills may be assessed through oral presentations and through essays on geological issues, reports of practical investigations, and other written assignments. Students develop their literacy skills as they acquire knowledge of geological terminology and its appropriate application, gain understanding of contextual uses of data and concepts, and critically analyse information from different sources. Stage 2 Geology 2017 7 Skills The ways in which geological investigation skills are expressed are set out in the following table on intended student learning. Key Ideas Students should know and understand the following: Intended Student Learning Students should provide evidence that they are able to do the following: Purposes of Investigations Investigations have a clearly defined purpose. State the purpose of the investigation. Investigations are based on existing information or issues. For a given topic, state the key ideas or issues relevant to the information required, and identify the type of resource that might provide the information. Before searching for information it is necessary to have a clear idea of the information required, the level of detail needed, and the appropriate facilities for extracting the information. Before undertaking an information search it is necessary to be familiar with search techniques, the way in which the information is structured, and the means of retrieving the information. Identify key search words and phrases for a given topic. Use an information source (e.g. library catalogue, CD-ROM, or the Internet) to obtain information about a topic. Questions and Hypotheses Investigable questions guide investigations on geological issues. Formulate a question for an investigation based on a geological issue. Investigations are often designed to explore questions and to pose solutions to those questions. Suggest possible investigations to test the question. Experiments may be used to test hypotheses. State a testable hypothesis, where appropriate. Designing Investigations Design Geological inquiry involves the design of procedures, including investigations based on the scientific method or observations made in the field, to investigate questions. Designing an investigation involves identifying: what needs to be observed the measurements that need to be taken the techniques that need to be used the equipment, apparatus, or measuring instruments needed. Design procedures to investigate posed questions or hypotheses. Every step in a practical, field, or issues investigation serves a purpose. Describe the steps of an investigation. 8 Design and carry out investigations to explore a geological issue. Design and carry out experiments, using scientific procedures. Record and analyse observations. Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Students should know and understand the following: Intended Student Learning Students should provide evidence that they are able to do the following: Variables Many practical investigations involve deliberately changing one quantity and determining the effect on another quantity. These quantities are referred to as ‘variables’. Identify the variables in a practical investigation. The quantity being deliberately changed is called the ‘independent variable’. The quantity that changes as a result, and is measured, is called the ‘dependent variable’. Classify appropriate variables in a practical investigation as independent or dependent. Other variables are held constant, if possible, throughout a practical investigation. Identify any variables that are deliberately held constant throughout a practical investigation. Conducting Investigations Procedures Practical investigations require a particular set of actions to be carried out in a well-defined order. Follow instructions accurately and safely. Safety and Ethics Work ethically with members of the team, the general public, and representatives of companies visited. Ethical practices must be followed when conducting investigations in either the laboratory or the field. Respect differing opinions and the location being visited. Acknowledge the work of other people (including photographs). Safety must be considered when carrying out investigations in the laboratory or the field. Recognise hazards and work safely during a practical investigation in the laboratory or the field. Many investigations involve the collaborative efforts of a team. Negotiate procedures with the other members of a team. Clarify the role of each member. Errors in Measurements Measurements are affected by random and/or systematic errors. Identify sources of error and uncertainty that may occur in a practical investigation. Where applicable, increasing the number of samples or repeating a practical investigation improves the reliability of the data. Explain the importance of increasing the number of samples or repeating a practical investigation, where feasible. Reliability and Accuracy The reliability of data collection is related to the reproducibility of the measurements. Where possible, collect data, using measurements that can be reproduced consistently. Measurements are more reliable when there is less scatter in the results. Determine which of two or more measuring instruments or sets of measurements is most reliable. Stage 2 Geology 2017 9 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Students should know and understand the following: Students should provide evidence that they are able to do the following: Reliability depends on the extent to which random errors are minimised. Use averages or graphing as a means of detecting or minimising the effects of random errors. The resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest increment measurable by the measuring instrument. Select an instrument of appropriate resolution for a measurement. The number of significant figures for a measurement is determined by the reproducibility of the measurement and the resolution of the measuring instrument. Record and use measurements to an appropriate number of significant figures. Information and Data Investigations based on experiments and geological issues involve evidence, which may be qualitative or quantitative. Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative evidence. Valid conclusions depend on gathering appropriate evidence. In investigations, make and record careful and honest observations and measurements. Data can be more easily interpreted if presented in a well-structured table. Where appropriate, present data in an appropriate tabular form. Include a title, column headings showing the quantities measured or observations made and units used, and the values recorded. Graphs are a useful way of displaying some forms of data. When a graph is plotted, the independent variable (or a quantity derived from it) is plotted horizontally and the dependent variable (or a quantity derived from it) is plotted vertically. Plot a graph of a dependent variable versus an independent variable. Include a title, labelled axes, and appropriate scales and units. A line of best fit can show relationships between variables in an experiment. Draw a line of best fit through a series of points on a graph such that the plotted points are scattered evenly above and below the line of best fit. Understanding of a topic, issue, or question is enhanced by using information from different sources. Obtain information from different sources. Information obtained should be critically examined for accuracy and its suitability for the purpose for which it was sought. Evaluate information for bias, credibility, accuracy, and suitability. The source of information should be recorded so that the information is accessible to others. List the sources of information, using an appropriate format. Interpretation and Evaluation Careful observation in a practical or field investigation is essential for analysis and for comparison with other investigations. Describe a pattern observed in the results of an investigation. The scatter of data points above and below the line of best fit is probably due to random errors. Using the scatter in the graphs of data from similar investigations, compare the random errors. 10 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Students should know and understand the following: Students should provide evidence that they are able to do the following: Subsequent investigations can be improved by the critical evaluation of the procedure and results. Analyse and evaluate information from a series of observations or an investigation and suggest improvements or indicate the additional information needed. A conclusion should be written at the end of each investigation or series of observations in the field. Write a conclusion that is based on the results of an investigation and related to the question posed and the purpose of, or the hypothesis for, the investigation. Draw a conclusion from a series of observations in the field. Alternative Views The evidence collected through investigations may be interpreted in a variety of ways. Present more than one interpretation of the evidence collected through an investigation. Arguments can be presented for and against an issue on the basis of information selected from different sources. Construct for-and-against arguments on an issue, based on information gathered from different sources. Personal views should be substantiated by the evidence collected through an investigation. Present a justification of, or evidence for, a personal view. Communication Communication in geology uses specific terminology, conventions, diagrammatic representations, and symbols. Use geological terminology, conventions, diagrammatic representations, and symbols that are appropriate for the purpose of the communication. Communication for different audiences requires the use of a format suitable for the purpose. Select the appropriate format for a particular audience. All communication needs to be well structured, well organised, and clearly presented. Present communications (oral, written, and multimedia) clearly and logically, using geological concepts appropriate to the audience. Written reports should describe the aim, procedure, and results of an investigation and analyse both the results and the conclusions drawn from the results. Sufficient information should be included to enable the procedure or field observations to be repeated by others. Write a report of an investigation that includes a description of its purpose and procedure, results, analysis, alternative interpretations, and conclusions. Multimedia presentations use minimal language and a variety of graphics to present an argument. Use concise language and graphics to present information. Stage 2 Geology 2017 Write a field report detailing observations and interpretations and including a discussion of alternative interpretations of the phenomena studied. 11 CONTENT Stage 2 Geology is a 20-credit subject in which the topics are prescribed. The content is organised into the topics listed below. The Rock Cycle Minerals The Cycle of Change Regional Processes Global Patterns and Processes Global Patterns Global Processes The History of the Earth Uniformitarianism Rock Relationships The Geological Time-scale Geological Mapping and Remote Image Interpretation Geological Hazards The Impact of Human Activities on the Earth Civil Engineering The Importance of Resources Sustainable Future 12 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Details of Topics The topics are presented below in two columns as a series of key ideas side-by-side with intended student learning. Field investigations and practical investigations are relevant to all aspects of this subject. Those elements of the intended student learning that are italicised must form part of the field and/or practical investigations. The external examination will not include questions about specific fieldwork sites. The Rock Cycle Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Minerals The Earth is made up of minerals that are the constituents of rocks. State five criteria for categorising a substance as a mineral. Name the seven most important mineral groups (silicates, oxides, carbonates, sulfides, sulfates, halides, and native elements). Explain how minerals are classified into these groups according to their chemical composition. Describe, for mineral specimens: colour streak cleavage hardness lustre density magnetism reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid. Identify the following common rock-forming minerals, and know the mineral group to which each belongs: quartz feldspar biotite mica muscovite mica calcite olivine hornblende augite clay minerals (e.g. kaolinite). Identify the following metallic ores, know the mineral group to which each belongs, and name the extracted metal: galena Stage 2 Geology 2017 13 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning chalcopyrite malachite sphalerite bauxite haematite magnetite. Explain the difference between a mineral deposit and an ore deposit. The Cycle of Change Rocks are generally classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic. In general terms, describe the formation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks are in a constant process of change. Relate specific temperature and pressure conditions that occur in different parts of the Earth’s crust to mineral changes. Use a simple diagram to explain how processes and materials interact to make up the rock cycle. Regional Processes Melting and Crystallisation Magma and lava (molten rock) crystallise to form igneous rocks. Describe the differences between magma and lava. Explain how the rate of cooling determines the grain size of igneous rocks. State that the minerals commonly found in igneous rocks are quartz; orthoclase and plagioclase feldspars; biotite and muscovite micas; amphibole; pyroxene; and olivine. State, with the aid of a diagram, the order in which the minerals listed above crystallise from a melt, and relate this order to the mineral composition of rocks. Explain how metallic ores are concentrated by gravity-settling and hydrothermal processes. Explain how igneous rocks are classified according to texture (grain size and arrangement) and mineral composition. Identify the following igneous rocks and explain how each is formed: granite rhyolite pegmatite basalt andesite gabbro dolerite. 14 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Describe the textures of the igneous rocks listed above. State the mineralogies of the igneous rocks listed above. Explain the formation of: batholiths dykes sills. Explain the effect of temperature, silica content, and volatiles on the viscosity of a magma and hence on the: nature of volcanic eruptions shapes and sizes of the resulting volcanic land-forms. Explain the formation of the following extrusive igneous land-forms: shield cones composite cones cinder cones flood basalts. Surface Processes Rocks on the surface of the Earth are continually changed by weathering. Define the term ‘weathering’. Explain the principles of physical and chemical weathering. Explain how weathering processes change rocks on the surface of the Earth. Explain the difference between weathering and erosion. The products of weathering are eroded by wind, water, ice, and gravity, and eventually deposited. Describe and explain the actions of wind, water, ice, and gravity as agents that transport the products of rock weathering. Compare the sorting and rounding effects of these transporting agents. Explain the relationship of the energy of an environment to the type of material transported and deposited. In the field, study and record examples of different forms of weathering and erosion, and the resulting land-forms. Sedimentary rocks are formed from products of weathering and erosion. Stage 2 Geology 2017 Explain how sediments are changed into sedimentary rocks by compaction and cementation over time. 15 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Identify the following sedimentary rocks, and explain how each is formed: conglomerate sandstone shale tillite fossiliferous limestone calcrete. Describe the textures of the sedimentary rocks listed above. Determine the clast and cement composition of medium-grained and coarse-grained sedimentary rocks. Describe how the processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition concentrate metallic ores. Deformation Compressional and tensional forces acting on rocks cause joints, faults, and folds. Contrast the conditions under which rocks are likely to break or fold. Explain the difference between a joint and a fault. Explain the difference between normal, reverse, and lateral faults. Describe forces that cause each type of faulting to occur. Explain the difference between an anticline and a syncline. Recognise, in the field, at least one of the deformation structures listed above. Metamorphism Rocks change in the solid state to become metamorphic rocks. Define the term ‘metamorphism’. Thermal metamorphism is caused by heat from an igneous intrusion. Explain the formation of a metamorphic aureole surrounding an igneous intrusion. Explain how heat, pressure, fluids, and time contribute to metamorphism. Identify the following thermal metamorphic rocks, name their parent sedimentary rocks, and describe the textural and mineralogical changes that have occurred: hornfels quartzite marble. 16 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Regional metamorphism is due to directed pressure and heat. Intended Student Learning Explain the difference between load pressure and directed pressure. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the development of foliation by directed pressure. Explain the difference between cleavage and bedding in rocks that have been subjected to regional metamorphism. Identify the following regional metamorphic rocks: slate gneiss schist. Describe the textures and mineralogies of the rocks listed above. Describe the progressive formation of these three regional metamorphic rocks from their parent sedimentary rock, shale. Explain why the changes may occur in both thermal and regional metamorphism. Stage 2 Geology 2017 17 Global Patterns and Processes Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Global Patterns The Earth’s Crust Continental crust is different from oceanic crust. With the aid of maps and sectional diagrams, compare continental crust and oceanic crust in terms of their: global distribution thickness composition and density topographical features age. Continental crust consists of shields, orogenic belts, and sedimentary basins. Describe the typical ages, processes of formation, and topographic features of, and the rock types associated with, shields, orogenic belts, and sedimentary basins. On a map of Australia, mark the locations of the Western Australian, Gawler, Adelaide, Tasman, and Eromanga crustal elements. State the ages of each of the crustal elements listed above. List the distinguishing rock types in each crustal element listed above. Identify the tectonic crustal type in each crustal element listed above. Use the information above to explain how the Australian continent has developed. The Earth’s Interior Evidence for the nature of the Earth’s interior can be obtained from seismic waves. Explain the meaning of the terms ‘focus’ and ‘epicentre’ as they apply to an earthquake. Describe the properties of P-waves and S-waves. State the relative arrival times of P-waves and S-waves, as shown by a typical seismogram. Explain how the different arrival times of P-waves and S-waves can be used to find the epicentre of an earthquake. Explain how the presence of shadow zones provides information about the layered structure of the Earth. Using a diagram, describe the structure of the Earth’s interior, showing the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. 18 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Describe the relative thickness, composition, and state of each layer. Global Processes Plate Tectonics Continental drift provides evidence to support the theory of plate tectonics. Explain how continental drift is supported by matching: the margins of continents the continuation of geological structures rock types and fossils palaeoclimatic zones on widely separated continents. Explain how the evidence given above was used to reconstruct Gondwana. Sea-floor spreading results in the generation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges. Explain how each of the following forms of evidence supports the observation that new oceanic crust is being generated at mid-ocean ridges: palaeomagnetic striping symmetry of age thickness of sediment. The plate tectonics theory is a model that explains global tectonics in terms of the generation and subduction of lithospheric plate material. Describe, by means of well-labelled diagrams, the processes that occur at the following types of plate boundary: constructive or divergent conservative or transform destructive, convergent, or collisional – oceanic–oceanic – oceanic–continental – continental–continental. Explain the contribution of each type of boundary to the overall movement of the plates, and describe the forms of igneous and earthquake activity that occur. Explain how the existence of a Benioff zone contributes to the understanding of the process of subduction. Discuss mechanisms that have been suggested as explanations of plate movement. Stage 2 Geology 2017 19 The History of the Earth Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Uniformitarianism The processes occurring in the present can be used to explain processes that occurred in the past. Explain the principle of uniformitarianism, giving examples. Understand the limitations of this principle. Explain how the texture, colour, and other characteristics of a rock provide information about its history. Apply the principle of uniformitarianism to interpret geological features seen in the field. Fossils may provide information about past environments. Define the term ‘fossil’. Relate the present environment of living organisms to the past environment of fossils of similar organisms. Rock Relationships The principle of superposition states that in an undisturbed sedimentary sequence the oldest rocks are at the bottom. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, how the principle of superposition can be used to determine the relative ages of rock strata. Determine the relative ages of rocks found in the field. Depositional structures and features that occur on the surfaces of sediments enable the facing of strata to be determined. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, how features such as ripple marks, mud cracks, crossbedding, and graded bedding provide information about whether a rock stratum or sequence of strata has been overturned. An igneous intrusion must be younger than the rocks into which it has intruded. Explain the concept of cross-cutting relationships. Determine the relative ages of igneous intrusions and/or sedimentary strata. Index fossils are useful in determining the relative ages of rocks in a sequence, and in correlating rock strata. Explain why some fossils are useful as index fossils. An unconformity represents a break in the geological history of an area. Define the term ‘unconformity’. Explain how index fossils may be used to correlate rock strata from different locations. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, how an unconformity may be formed. Identify an unconformity on a map, photograph, or diagram, or in the field. 20 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Geological histories of regions can be determined by using the concepts of uniformitarianism, superposition, cross-cutting relationships, facing, and index fossils. Intended Student Learning Use these key ideas to interpret the geological histories of regions shown on maps, cross-sections, and diagrams. Use these key ideas to interpret the geological history of an area studied in the field. The Geological Time-scale Fossil evidence was used to develop the geological time-scale. Explain the relationship between the fossil record and the eras in the geological time-scale. Explain why the fossil record is inevitably incomplete, especially for organisms that lived more than 600 million years ago. Identify each of the following fossils and explain its significance within the geological time-scale: Ediacaran fauna Archaeocyatha trilobites graptolites dinosaurs mammals. ammonites Isotopic dating is a means of assigning absolute ages to rocks. Explain, in terms of parent/daughter elements and half-life, the concept of radioactive decay. Interpret decay curves. Geological Mapping and Remote Image Interpretation Geological maps and images provide information about structures and rock types. Explain the meanings of the terms ‘dip’ and ‘strike’. Interpret the dip and strike symbols on geological maps. Identify the following structures on geological maps, cross-sectional diagrams, block diagrams, aerial photographs, and satellite images, as appropriate: normal, reverse, and lateral faults synclines and anticlines, both non-plunging and plunging the axis of a fold. State the direction of plunge, where relevant. Draw block diagrams to illustrate geological structures. Interpret the geological history of an area shown on a geological map, block diagram, or cross-section. Interpret maps, images, or photographs that relate directly to the area studied in the field. Stage 2 Geology 2017 21 Geological Hazards Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Volcanic activity can have effects at the local to global scales. Describe the impact caused by different forms of volcanic ejecta, including: lava flows pyroclastics poisonous gases. Explain how the following phenomena may provide warnings of impending volcanic eruption: earth tremors distortion of the shape of a volcanic cone changes in the chemistry of volatiles. Discuss the reasons for and implications of living in a volcanically active region. Earthquakes may cause severe damage at a local scale. Describe the types of damage that earthquakes can cause in urban areas. Relate this damage to the particle motion of surface waves. Compare the essential features of the Richter and Mercalli scales for measuring earthquakes. Discuss the relationship between earthquake damage and underlying rock types. Explain how buildings and other structures can be constructed to minimise earthquake damage. Discuss the predictability of an earthquake. Describe the causes and likely effects of a tsunami. 22 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas The impact of extraterrestrial bodies can cause major changes to Earth systems. Intended Student Learning Describe the effects of the impact of an extraterrestrial body on the surface and atmosphere of the Earth. Discuss the theory of and evidence for the extinction of life forms as a result of the impact of an extraterrestrial body at the Cretaceous– Tertiary boundary. Explain how the following types of evidence are used to identify craters caused by the impact of an extraterrestrial body on the surface of the Earth: shocked quartz a layer of iridium tektites a circular crater. Discuss the possibility that an extraterrestrial body may make a significant impact in the future. Stage 2 Geology 2017 23 The Impact of Human Activities on the Earth Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Civil Engineering The surface of the Earth has been considerably altered to meet the perceived needs of technological societies. Discuss the range of deliberate alterations that human beings have made to the surface of the Earth. Describe local examples of these changes. The construction of large civil engineering structures requires knowledge of the geology of the area concerned. Explain how the geology of an area dictates the location and nature of each of the following structures: dams roads and railways building foundations. Describe causes of slope failure and preventive measures that can be taken. The Importance of Resources People use the geological resources of the Earth to help satisfy their needs and wants. Understand that all lifestyles depend on the use of geological resources. Describe, using examples from a variety of cultures (including Indigenous Australian), the ways in which geological resources are used for: modifying the environment tools craft agriculture. The uses of geological resources are related to their properties. Understand that the geological resources of the Earth may be divided into two groups: metallic and non-metallic. Explain the relationship between the properties and use of the metal extracted from one of the following resources: chalcopyrite haematite rutile gold bauxite. 24 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Explain the relationship between the properties and use of one of the following non-metallic resources: sand clays (including ochre) coarse aggregate building stones gemstones flint. Fossil fuels are commonly used as an energy resource. Define the term ‘fossil fuel’. Describe the characteristics of coal and petroleum. Describe the processes by which coal is formed. Explain the meanings of the terms ‘porosity’ and ‘permeability’. Describe the processes by which petroleum is formed, migrates, and is trapped. With the aid of diagrams, describe structures within which petroleum may be trapped. Describe the processes by which unconventional gas is formed and is trapped. Explain how fossil fuels are used as an energy resource. Uranium can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels. Explain how enriched uranium is used to generate electricity. Soil and water are fundamental to life. Understand that soil is essentially a mixture of mineral particles, organic matter, air, and water. Discuss, with the aid of examples, the relationship between a soil, its origin, and its possible uses. Draw a diagram that shows the formation, structure, and operation of a groundwater basin. The diagram must include the following features: recharge area water table aquifer aquiclude. Stage 2 Geology 2017 25 Key Ideas The Earth’s atmosphere is dynamic and determines global climate patterns. Intended Student Learning Name the principal gases in the Earth’s atmosphere and state their approximate proportions. Describe the evolution of the atmosphere, including the importance of photosynthetic organisms in increasing the oxygen level. Explain how the following phenomena document the atmospheric and climatic changes that have occurred throughout the history of the Earth: glacial stratigraphy obtained from ice cores the distribution of rocks such as tillite and limestone. Relate the evidence above to changes in the level of the following atmospheric factors: carbon dioxide methane temperature. Sustainable Future The management of geological resources is necessary to ensure that the needs of present and future generations are met. Understand that renewable resources may be diminished or sustained over time. Understand that non-renewable resources may be exhausted over time. Discuss the sustainability of the following resources: metallic resources non-metallic resources uranium soil fossil fuels water atmosphere oceans. Discuss the relationship between the resources listed above and their classification. Understand the need to manage the use of these resources to ensure a sustainable future. Discuss the need for, and limitations of, alternative sources of energy. Describe the principles and limitations of geothermal energy. 26 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Describe the following exploration techniques for finding metallic deposits: geophysical surveys (magnetic and gravity) geochemical surveys. Explain how seismic surveys are used in petroleum exploration. Describe the requirement of the Aboriginal Heritage Act 1988 (or its Northern Territory equivalent) that Aboriginal objects, remains, and sites of spiritual, archaeological, anthropological, and historical significance must be protected during exploration for, and the extraction of, minerals. Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the essential features of the following mining activities: open-cut underground in situ leaching. Explain how petroleum is extracted from the Earth. Compare the economic and environmental impacts of coal and nuclear power plants for generating electricity. The exploration for and extraction of geological resources have an impact on the natural environment. Discuss the possible effects that the exploration for and extraction of geological resources can have on the environment. Companies that operate extractive industries are required by law to minimise environmental damage during operations and to rehabilitate the site when these operations cease. Identify the key features that must be addressed by companies producing environmental impact statements. Understand the aims of a progressive rehabilitation plan for an extraction site. Discuss possible rehabilitation procedures required by government regulations, including: the stabilisation of slopes revegetation visual impact. Describe the operations and environmental management of an extractive industry visited. Human activities can degrade the soil. Describe and explain how human activities can cause erosion and changes in salinity. Discuss measures that can be undertaken to reduce the salinity and erosion of soil, and assess their effectiveness. Stage 2 Geology 2017 27 Key Ideas Intended Student Learning Human activities can affect groundwater and the atmosphere. Describe how usable groundwater supplies can be affected by human activities. Discuss the management of groundwater in terms of water-table recharge and the nature of the aquifer. Describe the use of aquifer storage and recovery as a means of conserving water. Discuss the possible relationship between human activities over the past 200 years and changes in the levels of the following atmospheric factors: carbon dioxide temperature. 28 Stage 2 Geology 2017 ASSESSMENT SCOPE AND REQUIREMENTS All Stage 2 subjects have a school assessment component and an external assessment component. EVIDENCE OF LEARNING The following assessment types enable students to demonstrate their learning in Stage 2 Geology: School Assessment (70%) Assessment Type 1: Investigations Folio (40%) Assessment Type 2: Skills and Applications Tasks (30%) External Assessment (30%) Assessment Type 3: Examination (30%). Students should provide evidence of their learning through eight to ten assessments, including the external assessment component. Students undertake: at least one field investigation, at least two practical investigations, and one issues investigation for the folio at least three skills and applications tasks one examination. At least one investigation or skills and applications task should involve collaborative work. ASSESSMENT DESIGN CRITERIA The assessment design criteria are based on the learning requirements and are used by: teachers to clarify for the student what he or she needs to learn teachers and assessors to design opportunities for the student to provide evidence of his or her learning at the highest possible level of achievement. The assessment design criteria consist of specific features that: students should demonstrate in their learning teachers and assessors look for as evidence that students have met the learning requirements. For this subject the assessment design criteria are: investigation analysis and evaluation application knowledge and understanding. Stage 2 Geology 2017 29 The specific features of these criteria are described below. The set of assessments, as a whole, must give students opportunities to demonstrate each of the specific features by the completion of study of the subject. Investigation The specific features are as follows: I1 Design of geological investigations. I2 Selection and acknowledgment of information about geology and issues in geology from different sources. I3 Manipulation of apparatus, equipment, and technological tools to implement safe and ethical investigation procedures. I4 The obtaining, recording, and display of findings of investigations, using appropriate conventions and formats. Analysis and Evaluation The specific features are as follows: AE1 Analysis of data and concepts and their connections, to formulate conclusions and make relevant predictions. AE2 Evaluation of procedures, with suggestions for improvement. Application The specific features are as follows: A1 Application of geological concepts and evidence from investigations to solve problems in new and familiar contexts. A2 Use of appropriate geological terms, conventions, and diagrammatic representations. A3 Demonstration of skills in individual and collaborative work. Knowledge and Understanding The specific features are as follows: KU1 Demonstration of knowledge and understanding of geological concepts. KU2 Use of knowledge of geology to understand and explain social, economic, or environmental issues. KU3 Communication of knowledge and understanding of geology in different formats. SCHOOL ASSESSMENT Assessment Type 1: Investigations Folio (40%) Students undertake at least one field investigation, at least two practical investigations, and one issues investigation to include in the folio. They inquire into aspects of geology through practical discovery and data analysis, or by selecting, analysing, and interpreting information. 30 Stage 2 Geology 2017 As students design and carry out investigations they learn to pose questions about the world around them. They use their observations and gather data and information to generate evidence, which enables them to construct reasonable explanations in response to these questions and to develop a better understanding of themselves and their environment. Those elements of the intended student learning that are italicised in the ‘Content’ section must form part of the field and/or practical investigations. Field Investigations Students investigate features observed and recorded in the field (including related geological issues), accessing information from different sources, analysing their findings, and critically evaluating the evidence from their investigation. Students communicate their understanding of the investigation in a range of formats. The following must be included in the report(s) presented: an introduction giving the setting of the investigated features relevant geological history geological significance of features different interpretations of observations an evaluation of information gathered a summary of results or findings and the conclusions drawn citations and a reference list. Suggested formats for presentation of a field investigation report include: an extended written response an individual or collaborative written, oral, or multimedia presentation. A field investigation report should be a maximum of 1500 words if written or a maximum of 10 minutes for an oral presentation, or the equivalent in multimedia form. The report should include a field notebook as an appendix. In their report students should refer to observations recorded in the field notebook. The field notebook itself is not assessed and does not contribute to the word-count. Practical Investigations Students formulate questions and hypotheses, design and conduct practical investigations, collect, analyse, and interpret data, evaluate results, draw conclusions, and communicate their knowledge and understanding of concepts. These processes may occur in one assessment or in separate assessments. Practical investigations may be conducted individually or collaboratively, but each student presents an individual report. Students submit at least two practical investigation reports. The following must be included across the range of reports presented: graphing results designing and performing an investigation to answer a question displaying and interpreting results relating results to relevant concepts identifying and explaining the sources of errors evaluating an investigation and suggesting improvements formulating a conclusion and making relevant predictions describing and explaining safety considerations in a practical investigation. Stage 2 Geology 2017 31 Note that one practical investigation might serve several of these functions. For example, one investigation designed by the student might be used for graphing and could also be evaluated and used to demonstrate understanding of aspects of safety. At least one practical investigation must give students the opportunity to design the method. Suggested formats for presentation include: a written report a multimedia product. Issues Investigation Students undertake one issues investigation in which they investigate an issue of personal, social, economic, or environmental relevance in geology. The issues investigation may be an extension of a field investigation, or it may be based on a human impact topic. Students formulate a question and conduct the investigation. They gather information from different sources, identify and discuss at least two different points of view that members of the community hold on the issue, analyse their findings, critically evaluate the evidence, and develop and explain their conclusions from their investigation. Students use appropriate geological terms and conventions to explain links between geological data, concepts, and issues. The issues investigation should include: an introduction that identifies the geological issue investigated relevant geological background on the issue the identification of alternative views or interpretations an explanation of the perspectives of the issue an evaluation of information gathered a summary of results or findings and conclusions drawn citations and a reference list. The issues investigation may be divided into smaller sections that can be presented in different formats. Students select from a range of formats to communicate their understanding of the issue, such as an extended response or an oral or multimedia presentation. The issues investigation should be a maximum of 1500 words if written or a maximum of 10 minutes for an oral presentation, or the equivalent in multimedia form. For this assessment type, students provide evidence of their learning in relation to the following assessment design criteria: investigation analysis and evaluation application knowledge and understanding. For more information about conducting investigations, refer to the ‘Geological Investigation Skills’ section in Learning Scope and Requirements. 32 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Assessment Type 2: Skills and Applications Tasks (30%) Skills and applications tasks require students to use their knowledge and understanding of relevant geological ideas, facts, and relationships in a range of tasks that may be: routine, analytical, and/or interpretative posed in new and familiar contexts individual or collaborative assessments, depending on the design of the assessment. Students undertake at least three skills and applications tasks. Students may undertake more than three skills and applications tasks, but at least three should be under the direct supervision of the teacher. The supervised setting (e.g. classroom, online, laboratory, and/or field) should be appropriate to the task. Skills that could be assessed include using geological terms, conventions, and notations; making calculations; demonstrating understanding; applying knowledge; graphing; drawing, analysing, and annotating diagrams; analysing and annotating photographs; and drawing conclusions. Students should be able to select appropriate data and relevant geological evidence and information to successfully solve a range of problems. Some of these problems should be set in a personal, social, or global context. Skills and applications tasks may include: a data interpretation exercise a multimedia product an oral presentation a practical demonstration or model an extended response a written assignment multiple-choice questions short-answer questions a structured interview a response to text(s) (e.g. newspaper article). For this assessment type, students provide evidence of their learning in relation to the following assessment design criteria: investigation analysis and evaluation application knowledge and understanding. EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT Assessment Type 3: Examination (30%) Students undertake one 2-hour written examination consisting of questions of different types, such as multiple-choice, short-answer, and extended-response. Questions cover all topics, and some may require students to integrate their knowledge from a number of topics. Stage 2 Geology 2017 33 A geological time-scale is included in the examination question booklet. The following specific features of the assessment design criteria for this subject may be assessed in the external examination: investigation — I1 and I4 analysis and evaluation — AE1 application — A1 and A2 knowledge and understanding — KU1, KU2, and KU3. PERFORMANCE STANDARDS The performance standards describe five levels of achievement, A to E. Each level of achievement describes the knowledge, skills, and understanding that teachers and assessors refer to in deciding how well a student has demonstrated his or her learning on the basis of the evidence provided. During the teaching and learning program the teacher gives students feedback on their learning, with reference to the performance standards. At the student’s completion of study of each school assessment type, the teacher makes a decision about the quality of the student’s learning by: referring to the performance standards assigning a grade between A and E for the assessment type. The student’s school assessment and external assessment are combined for a final result, which is reported as a grade between A and E. 34 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Stage 2 Geology 2017 Performance Standards for Stage 2 Geology - Investigation Analysis and Evaluation Application Knowledge and Understanding A Designs logical, coherent, and detailed geological investigations. Critically and systematically analyses data and their connections with concepts, to formulate logical and perceptive conclusions and make relevant predictions. Applies geological concepts and evidence from investigations to suggest solutions to complex problems in new and familiar contexts. Consistently demonstrates a deep and broad knowledge and understanding of a range of geological concepts. Critically and logically selects and consistently and appropriately acknowledges information about geology and issues in geology from a range of sources. Manipulates apparatus, equipment, and technological tools carefully and highly effectively to implement well-organised, safe, and ethical investigation procedures. Uses appropriate geological terms, conventions, and diagrammatic representations highly effectively. Uses knowledge of geology perceptively and logically to understand and explain social, economic, or environmental issues. Demonstrates initiative in applying constructive and focused individual and collaborative work skills. Uses a variety of formats to communicate knowledge and understanding of geology coherently and highly effectively. Clearly and logically analyses data and their connections with concepts, to formulate consistent conclusions and make mostly relevant predictions. Applies geological concepts and evidence from investigations to suggest solutions to problems in new and familiar contexts. Demonstrates some depth and breadth of knowledge and understanding of a range of geological concepts. Logically evaluates procedures and suggests some appropriate improvements. Uses appropriate geological terms, conventions, and diagrammatic representations effectively. Critically and logically evaluates procedures and suggests a range of appropriate improvements. Obtains, records, and displays findings of investigations, using appropriate conventions and formats accurately and highly effectively. B Designs well-considered and clear geological investigations. Logically selects and appropriately acknowledges information about geology and issues in geology from different sources. Manipulates apparatus, equipment, and technological tools carefully and mostly effectively to implement organised, safe, and ethical investigation procedures. Obtains, records, and displays findings of investigations, using appropriate conventions and formats mostly accurately and effectively. Applies mostly constructive and focused individual and collaborative work skills. Uses knowledge of geology logically to understand and explain social, economic, or environmental issues. Uses a variety of formats to communicate knowledge and understanding of geology coherently and effectively. 35 36 - Investigation Analysis and Evaluation Application Knowledge and Understanding C Designs considered and generally clear geological investigations. Analyses data and their connections with concepts, to formulate generally appropriate conclusions and make simple predictions, with some relevance. Applies geological concepts and evidence from investigations to suggest some solutions to basic problems in new or familiar contexts. Demonstrates knowledge and understanding of a general range of geological concepts. Evaluates some procedures in geology and suggests some improvements that are generally appropriate. Uses generally appropriate geological terms, conventions, and diagrammatic representations, with some general effectiveness. Selects with some focus, and mostly appropriately acknowledges, information about geology and issues in geology from different sources. Manipulates apparatus, equipment, and technological tools generally carefully and effectively to implement safe and ethical investigation procedures. Applies generally constructive individual and collaborative work skills. Uses different formats to communicate knowledge and understanding of geology, with some general effectiveness. Applies some evidence to describe some basic problems and identify one or more simple solutions, in familiar contexts. Demonstrates some basic knowledge and partial understanding of geological concepts. Attempts to use some geological terms, conventions, and diagrammatic representations that may be appropriate. Identifies and explains some geological information that is relevant to one or more social, economic, or environmental issues. Obtains, records, and displays findings of investigations, using generally appropriate conventions and formats with some errors but generally accurately and effectively. D Prepares the outline of one or more geological investigations. Selects and may partly acknowledge one or more sources of information about geology or an issue in geology. Uses apparatus, equipment, and technological tools with inconsistent care and effectiveness and attempts to implement safe and ethical investigation procedures. Obtains, records, and displays findings of investigations, using conventions and formats inconsistently, with occasional accuracy and effectiveness. Describes basic connections between some data and concepts, and attempts to formulate a conclusion and make a simple prediction that may be relevant. For some procedures, identifies improvements that may be made. Uses knowledge of geology with some logic to understand and explain one or more social, economic, or environmental issues. Attempts individual work inconsistently, and contributes superficially to aspects of collaborative work. Communicates basic information about geology to others, using one or more formats. Stage 2 Geology 2017 Stage 2 Geology 2017 - Investigation Analysis and Evaluation Application Knowledge and Understanding E Identifies a simple procedure for a geological investigation. Attempts to connect data with concepts, formulate a conclusion, and make a prediction. Identifies a basic problem and attempts to identify a solution in a familiar context. Demonstrates some limited recognition and awareness of geological concepts. Uses some geological terms or diagrammatic representations. Shows an emerging understanding that some geological information is relevant to social, economic, or environmental issues. Identifies a source of information about geology or an issue in geology. Attempts to use apparatus, equipment, and technological tools with limited effectiveness or attention to safe or ethical investigation procedures. Attempts to record and display some descriptive information about an investigation, with limited accuracy or effectiveness. Acknowledges the need for improvements in one or more procedures. Shows emerging skills in individual and collaborative work. Attempts to communicate information about geology. 37 ASSESSMENT INTEGRITY The SACE Assuring Assessment Integrity Policy outlines the principles and processes that teachers and assessors follow to assure the integrity of student assessments. This policy is available on the SACE website (www.sace.sa.edu.au) as part of the SACE Policy Framework. The SACE Board uses a range of quality assurance processes so that the grades awarded for student achievement, in both the school assessment and the external assessment, are applied consistently and fairly against the performance standards for a subject, and are comparable across all schools. Information and guidelines on quality assurance in assessment at Stage 2 are available on the SACE website (www.sace.sa.edu.au). 38 Stage 2 Geology 2017 SUPPORT MATERIALS SUBJECT-SPECIFIC ADVICE Online support materials are provided for each subject and updated regularly on the SACE website (www.sace.sa.edu.au). Examples of support materials are sample learning and assessment plans, annotated assessment tasks, annotated student responses, and recommended resource materials. ADVICE ON ETHICAL STUDY AND RESEARCH See the ‘Ethical Study and Research’ section in the Introduction for information on: ethical study and research practices health, safety, and welfare ethical and safety practices in fieldwork safety practices in the laboratory. Stage 2 Geology 2017 39