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Absolutist State in France Lesson: Unit-6 ,Chapter 4 Absolutist State in France Author: Amrit Kaur Basra College: D.C.A.C. University of Delhi Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France 4.Introduction 4.1Background 4.2Rule of Charles VII 4.3 Rulers and administration 4.4 Richelieu &Mazzini 4.5 Royal Absolutism 4.6 Summary 4.7 Glossary 4.8 Quizzes 4.9 Exercise 4.10 References Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France 4.Introduction The feudal crisis in France also resulted in the establishment of the absolutist state. It was marked by the unhindered growth of royal absolutism .Where as in England as underlined by Kenyon, days of absolutism were numbered and there was establishment of the constitutional monarchy in late seventeenth century, in France ,there was no such change. Rather absolutism gave way to enlightened despotism in the eighteenth century. (Map of France in the 15th century) Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France 4.1 Background The process of political reorganization began with the rule of Charles VII in 1422. It was shaped by pre existing polity. From middle ages, France was ruled by capetianmonarchy . The country was at war with England for hundred years. During this period England with Bergundy had attempted to annex France. It had caused the end of Capetian dynasty. By the beginning of fifteenth century , France was on the road of recovery. (PHOTO OF Charles VII) 4.2 Rule of Charles VII It was in 1422 that Charles VII laid the foundation of Valois dynasty .At that time except in celtic island and Navarre ,there was no powerful feudal order to challenge the monarchy. However there was no extended administrative structure to establish the authority of monarchy over a vast territory. It meant that the ruler could face local opposition in any part of the country. Though the Hundred years war had exposed the weakness of feudal lords but they had army under their control. It was essential for the monarchy to setup centralized army. Charles VII focused on it. For its maintenance ,Taille Royale was imposed in the country in 1422. It was the first national tax imposed for the purpose of maintaining the army. Everyone had to pay this tax. However over the period of time it was seen that aristocratic and feudal families purchased commission in the army. Sometimes these were purchased for minor sons When latter came of age, they were found wanting in performing their military duties. Thus while the army was under the control of monarchy but chivalry and personal glory remained the hall mark of feudal elements. It affected the efficiency of the army when commanding authorities turned out to be competent. (Photos of Parlement ) Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France Charles VII also strenghtened the administrative structure .Before him , for taking administrative decisions, moarch would take the help of powerful feudal lords. When the feudal lords met in this capacity, they were known as Curi a Regis. When the feudal lords met at a place foe deciding legal and judicial matters , then the assembly was called Parlement. When this assembly met at the national level , then it was designated as the ‘Estate General ‘. This administrative set up which deliberated upon administrative , judicial and legal matters was found wanting in a number of ways .It was ineffective in subordinating powerful feudal lords .At regional level , Parlement remained ineffective. The aristocratic classes refused to pay any taxes. They entered into the e and thereby exempted themselves from the payment of any tax . (Photo of Estate General) The Estate General could not take the role of a national body Whenever its sessions were convened ,ruling classes from different regions refused to sanction tax.Its sessions were not convened regularly. 4.3 Rulers & Administration (Photo of Louis XI ) The reign of Charles VII was followed by Louis XI who ruled from 1461 to 1483. He suppressed local revolt in 1477. His successor , Charles VIII(1484-98) was supported by aristocracy to strengthen his power. Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France (Photo of Louis XII) A distinct phase in the history of royal absolutism began with the rule of Louis XII. While feudal lords increased their hold in administration , France entered European diplomacy. Burgundy was defeated and Brittany was captured . The French king married ditches of Brittany and extended French hold over it. The opposition of England to the issue of Brittany also ended when the treaty of etaples was signed in 1492. The Sixteenth century was the period of reformation. The pre existing absuses and superstitions beliefs were challenged by many Humanists in France. Calvin also developed his ideas in France .However very soon , it became clear that France remained a catholic country. The state persecuted protestants . Along with internal revolts , France also faced challenges in foreign policies but he monarchy defended and uphold catholic religion. Francis I strengthened the position of monarchy . He personally appointed all officials. The agreement of Bolagna signed by Francis I with Pope gave him the right to appoint Bishops in the country. The land taxation system led to the exploitation of peasantry . There was fragmentation of land. It was during the rule of Henry VII (1547-1559) that the family of Guise became very powerful. It was opposed by the family of Bourbon. While former progressed faith in catholic religion, latter was protestant . It further added to fending politics. There was further suppression of protestants known as Huguenots during the rule of Catherine –de- Medicl. At the directives of the ruler, Huguenots who had collected in thousands at Saint Bortholemeau for religious meeting were murdered. In 1572, second son of Catherine , Henry IV became the ruler. He was the last successor of velorsdynasty . He was followed by Henry of Navarre who laid the foundation of Bourbon dynasty . The royal power was strengthened and ther was further institutionalization of administration. An important role was played by Michel-de-la-Hopital between 1547-1574. He was appointed Chancellor in 1550. He expressed his views in the meetings of Estate-General. He regretted the fact that Estate-General was not convened regularly . However he never saw Estate-General as rival to the monarchy . He supported the role of offices when his views were not accepted , he resigned in 1568. Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France (Photos of Richlieu&Mazzini) 4.4 Richielieu & Mazzini After him, Richelien and Mazzini espoused the cause of monarchy. Richeliens imposed most taxes on third Estate which did not have political representation and social status. Richelein won support from the nobility . The royal hold was further strengthened when the ruler appointed intendents. They were responsible for administration and judiciary .Richelienconquidated the Hugenot fortresses in the South west, with the capture ofLa- Rochelle. The intendant system was created. These were permanent commissioners of the central government throughout France. They were responsible for judicial , financial and policing . However they co existed with other officers. It resulted in dualism and often conflicting situation. Perry Anderson has pointed out that there was a simultaneous and contradicting development of both officer and commissaire groups within the overall structure of the state during this period. It affected the functioning of the government. During this period, power, glory and prestige of monarchy reached a new stage. It became more ornate. There was focus on constructing magnificent structures . As in administration , aristocracy entered its folds and exempted itself from the payment of taxes, in economy it meant that the Absolutist state argumented its sources. The selling of offices became a source of income but the acquired wealth was not invested into manufacturing sector. The state sponsored royal manufactures and public trading companies. Several historions like Marcel Trudel have pointed out that growing initative of state through foreign policy in this direction. But its benefits came to small bourgeois and aristocratic groups. The exploitation of rural and urban masses continued. In 1610 state collected 17 million livers from the taille, it rose to 44 million livers by 1644. It was connected with the diplomatic and military success of Richelien during the thirty years war. The treaty of Westphalia extended the frontiers of the French monarchy from the meuse to the Rhine . However growing military expenses were through imposition of taxes on the poor. It resulted in town riots in Dijon, Aix and Poitiers in 1630; Jacqueries in the country side of Angoumois, Saintonge, Poitan in 1637-37 and major peasant rebellion in Normandy in 1639. The growing tension surfaced during the tenure of Mazarin . He attempts at annexing Naples and catalonia induced him to prolong the anti-Spanish war. The bad harvest in 1647, 1649 and 1651further generated social tension There was resentment against the Intendentsystem.Therentires were upset as their income was not increasing.The tension began with the protest of officers . They were led by the Parlement of Paris aginst the intendent system. Very soon regional dislocation surfaced. Many towns set up rebel municipal dictatorships . Rivals princes fought for the control of the court. The situation was brought under control by Mazarin’s armies by 1653. The suppression of ?Fronde was indicative of the success of monarchy in establishing administrative centralization and in ensuring control of dominant segments of society. While Mazarin failed to gain in the mediterrancan, the treaty of Westphalia gave Roussillon and Artois to France. Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France 4.5 Royal Absolutism (Photo of Louis XIV) The growth of absolutism entered a phase of profound change with the coming of Louis XIV. He became responsible for the growth of enlightened despotism. There was expansion of trade and diplomacy under him. The policy of mercantilism was implemented. The aristocracy further entrenched its position. Case Study- D RUSSIA Roert Brenner in his assessment of class conflict inherent in feudal made of production in Europe has pointed out that as feudal crisis intensified by mid 14th century in Europe, its outcome was not identical every where. In England, there was decline of serfdom but in Eastern Europe, second serfdom re-emerged. Perry Anderson in his assessment of Russia has also pointed that political outcome of feudal crisis was the establishment of most durable Absolutist state. Here Tsarismoutloved all its precursors and contemporaries, to become the only absolutist state in the continent to survive intact into the 20th century. The gensis of the absolutist state can be traced back during the phase of late feudal crisis, under the shadow of Tartar tutelage wars, civil conflicts, plague, depopulation and abandoned settlement characterized the 14th and first half of the 15th centuries situation changed from 1450 onwards when a new era of economic revival and expansion set in. In the course of the next hundred years, the population multiplied, agriculture prospered and internal trade and the use of money picked up rapidly. Urban manufactures and exchange were assisted by the territorial unification of Muscovy and standardization of currency. Hired labour was used in expansion of foreign trade. It was in this phase of upswing that Ivan III laid the foundation of Russian Absolutism. Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France Photo of Ivan III Reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) Ivan III, also known as Ivan the Great ruled Muscovy from 1462-1505. He avoided frontal combats in political and military matters. He preferred to achieve his goals through calculated & devious diplomacy. As the creator of a centralized states Ivan III has been compared with his contemporary, Louis XI of France. He encountered numerous problems in implementing his policy of territorial integration & expansion. Apart from the absorption of lesser star principalities’ such as yaroslavi, Tver, Rustov&Rayazan, it was nolonger possible for Muscovy to advance further without meeting opposition from great empires. For territorial expansion, Ivan III had to (1) subjugate the star lands including Novgorod (2) to win back Lithuania and the southern-western land and (3) to completely subjugate the Mongols. In his initial years of rule, Iva III focused on his first objective of controlling Novgorod. Muscovy was landlocked. Novgorod held the key to the Baltic & the open sea. The struggle for Novgorod reached its culmination in his reign. The Novgorod policy of manipulating between her two powerful neighbours – Lithuania and Muscovy could only succeed as long as they were in relative equilibrium. While Muscovy showed political ambitious under Ivan III, Novgorod was caught up with internal problems. There was an intense class struggle. The boyars and oligarchs were inclined towards Lithuania, an aristocratic state. The artisans and lower classes extended support to Muscovy, which was perceived as a national state. In 1471, the pro-Lithuania party inside the city came to an agreement with Lasimir IV of Poland who promised to support Novgorod against Moscow. In May Ivan III & his council of war decided to take up the challenge. The military campaign resulted in annexation of Novgorod and by August 1471, all resistance was over. The peace-terms imposed on Novgorod were mild. It had to pay an indemnity of 15000 rubles. Novgorod had to recognize the sovereignty of Ivan III & also cede some of its colonies. By 1489 control over Novgorod was firmly established. Many thousands of boyars, merchants and landowners were departed. Their confiscated estates were bestowed on lesser boyars & others from Muscovy who in lieu of land agreed to sender military service. Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France Map of Russia in 15th century The subjugation of Novgorod left Ivan III free to deal with his own two main opponents – Lithuania & the Mongols. His task became easy as the centralized Mongol empire was disintegrating. There were three regional power-centers of the Mongol empire. They were Mongolkhanates at Kazan another in Crimea. The third center of power was located between the Don & the Dnieper, the hitherto the main Golden horde. The tragic end to the last attempt of the Mongols to restore their power was undermined in 1502 when the Golden Horde itself ceased to exist as a cohesive force. Thereafter Mongols were reduced to being a local power and were no longer a threat to Ivan III. Latter also extended control over Lithuania. However, Muscovy still failed to get an access to the Baltic. Within the country, there were many changes in the character of the Muscovy state. Many have seen it as the transition from society of independent principalities to an absolute autocracy. Latter not only controlled land but also rendered military service to the state. The departing Mongols also shaped Muscovite life and society. The change was evident in Muscovy’s method of collecting taxes, its criminal law and diplomatic protocol. Mongols also shaped and influenced the growth of Muscovite autocracy. The Mongol empire was not only enacted on the principle of unquestioned and unqualified service to the state but the khans also demanded the complete obedience of the individual to the state. The khan alone embodied the state. Ivan III borrowed these principles. It was this specific Mongol colouring that distinguished Muscovite absolutism from that of England and Spain. Ivan III, for example, was the first ruler of Muscovy to claim ownership of all the Russian lands. He vastly extended the internal authority of the prince and asserted his position as the military ruler. The relationship with the church was equally significant. The church, because of its large land holding had played an active part in backing slave ownership. From 14 th century onwards, the association of the church and the state had become so close that by the early 16 th century the Tsar had come to be considered in semi-sacrosanct personality, with unlimited power, the earthly representative of God. It was thus becoming clear that it had its bearing on the position of ruler. The autocracy theoretically became the divinely ordained fountainhead of undifferentiated authority. Politically, Tsar claimed absolute power economically he claimed ownership of the entire land. Military, he led the country in war. Religiously he ruled by divine right and was committed to maintain and defend his authority. There was change in the position of the Russian landowning class, which consisted of autonomous and separatist princes ad Boyar nobles. Mainly of Tartar or oriental origin, they Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France possessed large allodial domain and controlled numerous slaves. They extended their loyalty to Muscovite court but retained their own military levies and retainers. Their rights as landowners were somewhat limited by Ivan III. By losing their right to depart from service, they dwindled into the category of ‘serving princes’ they were forced to serve only Muscovy. The status of the boyars was further jeopardized by Ivan’s policy of creating a new class of dependent servitors. The centralized government of the reign combined with the growth of an army to defend and expand the new states frontiers created the demand for bureaucrats and soldiers. Thus led to the introduction of new system of land grant known as Pomeste. The Pomeshchiki as these landowners were known, owed their position and their land to their dependent position vis-à-vis the Tsar. They held their land only so long as they served. The Pomeshchiki were cavalaymen, equipped for archery and sword to fight mainly the Tartar horsemen. Most of the land allotted to them was in the center and south of the country, near to the permanent frontier of war with the Tartars. The gentry’s pomeste land was usually a small estate with an average of some 5 to 6 peasant households working on it. The limited size of the land and rigorous government control meant that Pomeshchiki source of income was moderate. The productivity of land was limited. In 1497 Ivan III passed a decree restricting peasant nobility through Muscovy to two weeks in every year, before and after St. George’s Day in November. It was a first step taken towards the legal enserfment of the Russian peasantry. (Photo of Sophia) It was Mongols who influenced the state structure of the Muscovy. It was Byzantine that provided cultural super structure to the new state. Thiswas all the more evident in the marriage of Ivan’s to zoe (Sophia in Russia) in 1472. She was the daughter of Byzantine emperor. In 1458 when the Turks conquered Constantinople, Sophia and her father took refuge in Rome. In papal circles, the plan than evolved of marriage between Ivan and Sophia in hope of bringing Ivan into communion with Rome, seeking to reunite western and eastern churches. Ivan quickly grasped the potentiality for enhanced prestige in the proposed alliance. It would raise him to equal status with the ruling houses of Western Europe. The hopes of all the Christian empires were now centered on Muscovy due to the implication of Byzantine princes on the throne. However in realty, the hopes of Ivan and his successors lay more in the west than in any Byzantine political legacy. But for all that, the ecclesiastical doctrine, gave an ideological hallowing to the new empire. Though Ivan III during his reign had laid the foundation of the autocracy but he could not establish lasting peace in Russia. His grandson Ivan the terrible faced boyars unrest. Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France His successor Vassily III continued the process of controlling boyars and extended pomeste system. However the next glorious phase of Russian Absolutism began under Ivan IV or Ivan the terrible. (Photo of Ivan IV) Reign of Ivan IV (1547-1560) When Ivan IV inherited the throne, Muscovy still lacked strong social base and was confronted with challenges from boyars, Mongols and Lithuanians. Yet, his reign marked an important stage in the growth of autocracy. There was foundation of the dominant class of landed serving gentry, the pomeschiki. (Photo of Anastasia Zakharin) The struggle of autocracy against the boyars was rooted in economic compulsions. It was essential for the ruler to curb the power ofindependent landowners. In 1547, the year of his coronation, Ivan, the terrible also married Anastasia Zakharin. She belonged to a minor Muscovite nobles family having connection with the Romonovs. It added to his prestige. Ivan IV reduced the power of Mongol Khanates. It resulted in control of Muscovy over the entire course of Volga from its source in the with to the mouth on the Caspian sea. New trade routes to east, to Prussia and India were opened up to the Muscovite traders. This led to the development of western capitalism. In early 1530s Ivan was able to curb the power of nobility through various legal measures. He extended military service to boyars who were equated with pomeschiki. In 1562 and 1572 Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France decrees were passed which made it difficult for a boyar to dispose off the landorenen bequeath his estate at will. It had always been a Muscovite policy that he who serves must have land. To this was added the further principle that he who has land must also serve. It made Muscovy a compulsory service state in which each state was bound by ties of service to the autocracy. The dispute between the service nobility and the boyars corresponded to deep-seated changes, which had been gathering force from the last century. They all tended to undermine the economic power of the magnate. The agriculture and rural pursuits still dominates the economy. However, forces were at work, which were to transform agricultural sector. There was growth of mercantile capital. The consolidation of Muscovy as a National State led to abolition of numerous internal custom barriers. This facilitated the growth of commodity production. There was spread of money economy. In this setup, the closed self-sufficient manorial system of the Boyar magnates was an anachronism. In Western Europe, the manor and long since ceased to be an economic unit and had given way to capitalism. In Russia Ivan IV undermined the economic position of boyars. The need for more skillful and better-organized armies formed the background to the wholesale redistributionof land in the sixteenth century. Ivan IV enacted a decree that fortified monasterial acquisition of boyaras’ lands and this slowed down the growth in monasterial estates. Various steps were also taken to strengthen the position of pomeschiki. They were given the right to determine the level of rents extracted from the peasantry on their lands and to collect this personally. In this way, Pomeschiki were made masters over the labour force on their estates. At the same time, the administrative and tax system was modernized by the abolition of the Kormlenic provisioning system (salaries in kind) for provincial officials and the creation of a centralized treasury for fiscal receipts. A local network of guba self-administration, manned essentially by the service gentry, further integrated this class into the emergent governmental apparatus of the Russia monarchy. These military economic and administrative measures strengthened the political power of the centralized Tsarist state. The period of oprichniki or the creation of a terrorist guard corps marked not only the suppression of boyars but also the unleashing of terror in the Muscovy state. It was Prince Andrew Kurlesky who was responsible for Ivan’s final onslaught on the boyars. Kurlesky, after losing a battle of the poles, flied to Luthania and took up arms against his former ruler. Ivan IV was successful in providing new shape to the pomeste system. The oprichnina confiscations resulted in emergence of conditional tenures in the land holding. Votchina estates were made liable for service themselves. The growth of monastic land was checked. The role of the Royal Duma was reduced as Ivan IV summoned the first Assembly of the land. In it, smaller gentry were given representation. Ivan IV also granted the pomeschichik class the right to determine the level of rents extracted from the peasantry on their lands & to collect these them. Thus they became the masters over the land force on their estates. In 1581 Ivan IV effectively banned all peasants movements. Thus it was becoming clear that Tsarism was strengthening the power of the state through administrative organization and suppression of internal revolts. However within society, while position of land owning aristocracy was redefined, peasantry was further subjected to exploitation. Thus, the servitude of peasantry continued. 4.6 Summary Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France 1. It can be pointed out that the absolutism state in France strengthened the hold of monarchy over the administration. 2.There was an attempt to bring centralization . 3.While serfdom had declined but state provided no respite to poor people and peasants. 4.There was growth of bourgeoisie under the state. 5.However state protected the interest of feudal and aristocratic classes by incorporating them in administration. With the result there was profound social divide in France. The adherence to catholic religion also meant that protestants were suppressed. Even when Huguenots gradually came to play an important role in trade, inside France they were provided with limited rights. 6. There was continuous growth of royal power in France during 17th and 18th. 7. The control of aristocratic groups in administration and army eventually created a divide between rich and poor and it in turn shaped events that culminated in outbreak of French Revolution in 1789. 4.6Glossary -Grand Conseil :Adminitrative unit -Parlement: Alegal body in major towns which was used by state as a consultative body. -Noblesse de robe: New nobility -Tailles: direct land tax -Gabelle: salt tax -Michel de L’Hopital: Minister of Charles IX(1560-74) -Commissaires:Royal agents having administrative responsibilities - Intendants: royal agents who helped in collection of taxes and were loyal toward state. A. B. C. D. A. A. B. C. D. 1. 4.8 Quizzes 1-Gabellee was a tex which was imposed on – Land B. Salt Wine Livestocks Correct Answer B-It was collected in two ways.Either percentage of tax was fixed on the basis of total trade or sale price. Incorrect options Taille was the land tax. C&D aides were duties imposed on various commodities including wine and livestocks. 2- In which year Henry IV had married Marguerite de Valois1553 1572 1576 1610 Correct Answer B.Marriage took place in 1572 and she was daughter of Catherine de Medici. In correct options A.He was born in 1553 C. In that year he had to flee from Paris to save his life. D. He died in 1610. 4.9 Exercise Short Questions 1.Trace the process that led to starting of Absoltist State in France. 2.Write two features of administration of France in the sixteenth century. 3. Write about the institution of Parlement. Long Questions Assess the rule of Charles VII Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi Absolutist State in France 2. Highlight the role of religion in shaping power of monarchs in France during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 4.10 References Anderson Perry Lineages of the Absolutist State Jones,J.A.P, Europe 1500-1600,Surrey ,Nelson,1997 Parker David,The making of the French Absolutism,NewYork:StMartin”s Press,1983 Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi