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Who Wants to be an Actuary? An insurance company offers a “death and disability” policy that pays $10,000 when you die or $5,000 if you are permanently disabled. It charges a premium of only $50 a year for this benefit. Is the company likely to make a profit selling such a plan? To answer this question, the company needs to know the probability that its clients will die or be disabled in any year. Expected Value: Center The amount the company pays out on an individual policy is called a random number because its value is based on the outcome of a random event – use a capital letter, like X, to denote a random variable If we can list all the possible outcomes, we have a discrete random variable Example: X = payout from insurance company All possible outcomes: x = $10,000 (death), x = $5,000 (disabled), or x = $0 (neither) If you can’t list all the outcomes, the random variable is continuous Expected Value: Center The collection of all the possible values and the probabilities that they occur is called the probability model for the random variable Policyholder Oucome Payout x Death 10,000 Disability 5,000 Neither 0 Probability P(X = x) 1 1000 2 1000 997 1000 Expected Value: Center While we can’t predict what WILL happen in any given year, we can say what we EXPECT will happen 𝜇 = 𝐸 𝑋 = the expected value Let’s imagine the insurance company insures exactly 1000 people to see what it should expect to pay out Expected Value: Center Policyholder Oucome Payout x Death 10,000 Disability 5,000 Neither 0 Probability P(X = x) 1 1000 2 1000 997 1000 $10,000 1 + $5,000 2 + $0 997 = $20 1000 or 1 2 997 𝜇 = 𝐸 𝑋 = $10,000 + $5,000 + $0 = $20 1000 1000 1000 𝜇=𝐸 𝑋 = The total payout is expected to be $20,000 or $20 per policy (leaving an expected profit of $30 per policy). Expected Value (Discrete) Multiply each possible value by the probability that it occurs and find the sum 𝜇=𝐸 𝑋 = 𝑥∙𝑃 𝑥 Be sure that every possible outcome is included in the sum! Just Checking One of the authors took his minivan in for repair recently because the air conditioner was cutting out intermittently. The mechanic identified the problem as dirt in a control unit. He said that in about 75% of such cases, drawing down and then recharging the coolant a couple of times cleans up the problem – and only costs $60. If that fails, then the control unit must be replaced at an additional cost of $100 for parts and $40 for labor. Just Checking a) Define the random variable and construct the probability model. Outcome X = cost Probability Recharging works $60 0.75 Replace control unit $200 0.25 Just Checking b) What is the expected value of the cost of this repair? $60 0.75 + $200 0.25 = $95 c) What does that mean in this context? Car owners with this problem will spend an average of $95 to get it fixed. First Center, Now Spread… The variance is the expected value of the squared deviations from the center Policyholder Oucome Payout x Death 10,000 Disability 5,000 Neither 0 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 99802 Probability P(X = x) 1 1000 2 1000 997 1000 Deviation (x - 𝜇) (10000 – 20) = 9980 (5000 – 20) = 4980 (0 – 20) = –20 1 2 + 49802 + −20 1000 1000 2 997 = 149,600 1000 First Center, Now Spread… 𝜎2 The standard deviation is equal to the square root of the variance = 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 99802 1 2 2 + 4980 + −20 1000 1000 𝜎 = 𝑆𝐷 𝑋 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 2 997 = 149,600 1000 149,600 = $386.78 General Formulas: 𝜎 2 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 𝜎 = 𝑆𝐷 𝑋 = 𝑥−𝜇 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 2 P 𝑋 Another Example As the head of inventory for the Knowway computer company, you were thrilled that you had managed to ship 2 computers to your biggest client the day the order arrived. You are horrified, though, to find out that someone had restocked refurbished computers in with the new computers in your storeroom. The shipped computers were selected randomly from the 15 computers in the stock, but 4 of those were actually refurbished. If your client gets 2 new computers, things are fine. If the client gets one refurbished computer, it will be sent back at your expense - $100 – and you can replace it. However, if both computers are refurbished, the client will cancel the order this month and you lose $1000. What is the expected value and the standard deviation of your loss? Refurbished Computers RR 0.057 3 14 4 15 11 14 4 14 11 15 10 14 RN 0.2095 NR 0.2095 NN 0.524 To find the probabilities of each event, use a tree diagram Refurbished Computers Outcome x P(X = x) Two refurbs $1000 P(RR) = 0.057 One refurb $100 P(NR ∪ RN) = 0.2095 + 0.2095 = 0.419 Two new 0 P(NN) = 0.524 E(X) = 0(0.524) + 100(0.419) + 1000(0.057) = $98.90 I expect this mistake to cost the firm $98.90. Refurbished Computers Outcome x P(X = x) Squared Deviation (x - 𝜇)2 Two refurbs $1000 0.057 1000 − 98.90 One refurb $100 0.419 100 − 98.90 Two new 0 0.524 0 − 98.90 2 2 2 Var(X) = 1000 − 98.90 2 (0.057) + 100 − 98.90 2 (0.419) + 0 − 98.90 2 (0.524) = 51,408.79 SD(X) = 51408.79 = $226.74 I expect a standard deviation of $226.74. The large standard deviation reflects the fact that there’s a pretty large range of possible losses. More About Means & Variances Recall that adding/subtracting a constant shifts the mean but does not change the variance or standard deviation 𝐸 𝑋±𝑐 =𝐸 𝑋 +𝑐 Var 𝑋 ± 𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 Multiplying each value of a random variable by a constant multiplies the mean by that constant and the variance by the square of the constant 𝐸 𝑎𝑋 = 𝑎𝐸 𝑋 Var 𝑎𝑋 = 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 More About Means & Variances The mean of the sum of two random variables is the sum of the means The mean of the difference of two random variables is the difference of the means 𝐸 𝑋±𝑌 =𝐸 𝑋 ±𝐸 𝑌 More About Means & Variances If the random variables are independent, the variance of their sum or difference is always the sum of the variances 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 ± 𝑌 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 + 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑌 Does X + X + X = 3X? Answer depends on context and independence – don’t rely on what you know from Algebra A Few Good Examples Mr. Ecks and Ms. Wye each have a policy through the insurance company in the previous slides. (𝜇 = 𝐸 𝑥 = $20, 𝜎 2 = 149,600) 1. What is the expected variance the sum of Mr. Ecks’ and Ms. Wye’s policies? Var(X + Y) = Var(X) + Var(Y) = 149,600 + 149, 600 = 299,200 2. What is the expected standard deviation of the sum of the policies? 𝜎= 3. 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋 + 𝑌) = 299,200 = $546.00 What if Mr. Ecks’ policy is doubled. What is the new expected variance of his policy? 𝑉𝑎𝑟 2𝑋 = 22 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋 = 4 × 149,600 = 598,400 Just Checking Suppose the time it takes a customer to get and pay for seats at the ticket window of a baseball park is a random variable with a mean of 100 seconds and a standard deviation of 50 seconds. When you get there, you find only two people in line in front of you. Just Checking A. How long do you expect to wait for your turn to get tickets? 𝐸 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 100 + 100 = 200 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 B. What’s the standard deviation of your wait time? 𝜎= C. 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 = 502 + 502 = 70.7 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 What assumption did you make about the two customers in finding the standard deviation? The times for the two customers are independent. Continuous Random Variables Continuous random variables follow the same “rules” as discrete random variables – difference is the use of a Normal model When two independent continuous random variables have Normal models, so do their sum or difference A Continuous Example A company manufactures small stereo systems. At the end of the production line, the stereos are packaged and prepared for shipping. Stage 1 of this process is called “packing,” where workers collect all system components (a main unit, speakers, a power cord, an antenna, and some wires) and wrap everything inside a styrofoam form. Stage 2, called “boxing,” requires workers to place the styrofoam form and directions into a cardboard box, close it, seal it, and label the box for shipping. The company claims the time required for packing can be described by a Normal model with a mean of 9 minutes and a standard deviation of 1.5 minutes and the time required for boxing can also be described by a Normal model with a mean of 6 minutes and a standard deviation of 1 minute. A Continuous Example A. What is the probability that packing two consecutive systems takes over 20 minutes? B. What percentage of the stereo systems take longer to pack than to box? What Can Go Wrong? Probability models are still just models If the model is wrong, so is everything else Don’t assume everything’s Normal Watch out for variables that are not independent Don’t Forget… Variances of independent random variables add, standard deviations don’t (think – Pythagorean Theorem) Variances of independent random variables add, even when you’re looking at the differences between them Don’t write independent instances of a random variable with notation that looks like they are the same variables