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Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Dr. Hani Alrefai 18/11/2014 Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Importance of pentose shunt Importance of uronic acid pathway Hormonal regulation of blood glucose level Causes of hypergylcemia Types of DM Metabolic changes of DM Complications of DM Diagnosis of DM Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Def..: It is a pathway by which glucose is converted to pentose phosphate with production of two molecules of NADPH.H+. Site: Occurs in cytoplasm of many tissues include liver, adipose tissues, adrenals, ovaries, testis, red cells and retina. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 I- HMP can account for complete oxidation of glucose and giving 12 molecules of NADPH A- Reduction of oxidised glutathione B- Synthesis of : FA, Cholesterol and sphingolipids C- Activation of folic acid II- It provides the body with ribose-5phosphate: Synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids. Synthesis of co-enzymes, NAD and FAD Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Due to genetic deficiency of glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD); the red blood cell capacity to protect itself from oxidative damage is markedly decreased (due to decreased concentration of NADPH). Administration of certain drugs (premaquine, aspirin or sulfonamides), which stimulate the production of H202 or eating Fava beans (contain oxidizing agents) produce lysis of the fragile red cells. The only treatment is to avoid the above factors and by blood transfusion during the attack of haemolysis. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Definition: It is an alternative pathway for glucose oxidation resulting in production of glucuronic acid. Site: It occurs mainly in the cytosol of liver cells. Importance: production of UDP-Glucuronic a Biosynthesis of mucupolysaccharides Detoxication of : - Steroids - Drugs - Bilirubin Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Insulin Glucagon Adrenalin Glucocorticoids GH Thyroid hormones Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Insulin: leads to decrease of blood glucose level A. ↓↓Gluconeogenesis ↑↑ Glucose entrance to the cells and oxidation. ↑↑glycogenesis (ms. & liver)---↓↓Glycogenolysis ↑↑ Lipogenesis ----------------------↓↓ lipolysis ↑↑ Protein synthesis ↓↓Ketogenesis Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Glucagon: B. ↑↑Gluconeogenesis(in the liver only) ↑↑Glycogenolysis ----------------↓↓glycogenesis Adrenaline: C. ↑↑Gluconeogenesis ↑↑Glycogenolysis ----------------↓↓glycogenesis ↓↓ Insulin secretion. Growth hormone: E. ↓↓ Glucose uptake by the tissues. ↑↑ Lipolysis which ↑↑ FFA leading to ↓↓ glucose utilization (glucose sparing effect) Glucocorticoids: D. ↑↑ Gluconeogenesis Facilitate the action of glucagons, adrenaline and growth H. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Def. It is the rise of blood glucose level above the normal level. Causes Deficiency of insulin: Increase of anti-insulin hormones: Diabetes mellitus. Pancreatictomy (total or subtotal). Adrenaline as in emotion or in case of pheochromocytoma Glucocorticoids as in adrenal tumors and Cushing syndrome. Thyroxin as in hyperthyroidism. Pituitary growth hormone as in acromegally. Alimentary causes: It is due to increased rate of glucose absorption as in case of gastrectomy. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Def: It is a state of chronic hyperglycemia due to disturbances in carbohydrate Lipid and protein metabolism. Types: Primary Type I (insulin dependent diabetes mellitus or IDDM) Type II (non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus or NIDDM) Secondary Adrenaline in case of pheochromocytoma Glucocorticoids as in adrenal tumors and Cushing syndrome. Thyroxin as in hyperthyroidism. Pituitary growth hormone as in acromegally. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 NIDDM IDDM 1. 2. 3. 4. It was termed juvenile onset diabetes and usually occurs before the age of 20 years. Most probably, it is an autoimmune disease causing destruction of pancreatic (β cells). ↓↓ insulin level Treatment is insulin injections 1. 2. 3. 4. Adult onset diabetes mellitus, usually develops after the age of 40. It is caused by either defective insulin secretion or improper insulin receptors. ↑↑, ↓↓ or normal insulin level These cases are usually treated by oral hypoglycemic drugs. - Obesity and hyperinsulinism may be present in this type. - Hyperglucagonemia is reported in many cases. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 1- Hyperglycemia (hyperglycemia is ↑ ↑ bl.glucose more than 180 mg/dL). it is due to: - ↓↓ glucose utilization by different tissues. - ↓↓ rate of glucose transport to certain tissues as muscles and adipose tissues. - ↓↓ glycogenesis -↑↑ gluconeogenesis. 2- Glucosuria, polyuria, polydepsia and polyphagia. -↑ glucose loss in urine --> ↑ sp. gravity of urine --> ↑ urine excretion -Polyurea is associated with loss of H2O soluble vitamins as well as electrolytes as K+, Na+. 3- ↑ rate of catabolism of triglycerides with mobilization of free fatty acids from adipose tissues -> loss of weight. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 4- ↑↑ fatty acids oxidation --> ↑ ketone bodies formation -* ketonemia and ketonurea with acidosis. 5- ↑↑ protein catabolism --> muscle wasting. 6- ↓↓ protein synthesis --> ↓↓ antibodies formation --> the patients liable for infections and poor wound healing. 7- A number of tissues don't require insulin for the entry of glucose into cells --> hence the intracellular glucose of the tissues attains a level similar to that of blood, then excess glucose can be reduced to sorbital by aldose'reductase and part of it is oxidized to fructose by sorbital dehydrogenase. Large amounts of sorbitol and fructose inside the cells will causing hypertonicity and water retention. These are associated with pathological complication of D.M. as cataract, neuropathy, nephropathy and retinopathy. Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 1-The glucose tolerance test 2- Glycated haemoglobin 3- Glycated plasma proteins 4- Microalbuminuria Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Rational of test Performance of the test Results and interpretation Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Diabetic nephropathy. Diabetic neuropathy. Diabetic retinopathy. Cataract Peripheral vascular disease. Osmotic pressure Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014 Micro vasculopathy Dr. Hani Alrefai 04/11/2014