Download Read and translate the following definitions

Medicine. General Information
Read and translate the following definitions:
Medicine: Science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing
disease. The word also refers to any drug used to treat an
illness or injury.
Physician or Doctor: Person trained and licensed to
practice medicine; one who treats the entire body is a
general practitioner (G.P.) .
Surgery: medical specialty of cutting into, or performing
operative procedures on the patient. A doctor who does
this is a surgeon.
Acupuncture: Method of curing illness or relieving pain
by inserting needles into the body at certain points;
originally developed by the Chinese.
Epidemic: Contagious disease which spreads rapidly
throughout large portions of the population. The bubonic
plague is a famous example of an epidemic which ravaged
Europe in the Middle Ages. Modem medical science has
found means of preventing most epidemics.
Skeleton: Bony framework of the body, including the
spinal column, the rib cage, the skull, and the bones of the
arms and legs.
Anatomy: Science of the structure of organisms, including
the human body; can be studied by dissecting, or cutting
into organisms.
Pharmacy: Store where medicines are sold, especially by
prescription; also known as a drugstore or an apothecary.
Licensed pharmacists prepare medications, selling certain
3
drugs only when they are prescribed by a physician.
Disease: Pathological condition which causes abnormal
body functions and presents certain symptoms or signs;
can be caused by a germ, such as a bacterium or a virus.
Drug: Substance used to treat illness. Antibiotics, such as
penicillin and tetracycline, are familiar examples.
Microscope: Instrument which uses a series of lenses to
produce magnified images of objects too small to be
seen well by the eye alone. Laboratory technicians use
microscopes to analyze specimens of blood, urine, and
tissue.
Diagnosis: Identification of a disease or ailment after
careful examination and analysis. A doctor always
diagnoses the patient's ailment before treatment.
Communicable disease: Disease m which the causative
organism factor can be transmitted from one person to
another, the common cold is the most familiar example.
Family Practice: A certified primary care specialty
emphasizing general medical care for the entire family.
Biopsy: Portion of tissue removed from the living body
by an operation and examined to aid in diagnosing a
disease.
X-ray: Form of radiation used to create photographic
images of bones and internal organs and, in some cases,
to treat them when they are diseased; overexposure
can be dangerоus.
Nurse: Person trained to care for the sick, infirm, or
injured, often under the direction of a doctor.
Patient: Person who is undergoing medical treatment for
4
sickness or injury.
Health insurance: Form of protection against the high
costs of health care. Payment of a premium guarantees
medical coverage to the insured person.
Hospital: Place where medical and surgical care is
provided for sick and injured persons.
First aid: Emergency medical treatment given when
professional medical advice is not available.
1 Answer the given questions:
1 What is another name for a doctor? 2 What is the term
for a sick or injured person under medical care? 3 What is
the method of curing disease that was developed in China?
4 What term describes a disease that spreads widely and
rapidly? 5 Define a skeleton. 6 What is the study of the
structure of organisms called? 7 Give three names for a
place to buy prescription drugs. 8 A doctor cannot cure an
illness unless he has made a diagnosis. What is it? 9 Name
one familiar communicable disease. Do you know others?
10 How can x-rays help doctors make more accurate
diagnoses? 11 What does a nurse do? 12 What is a patient?
13 What is the purpose of health insurance? 14 What is a
hospital used for? 15 What is a disease? 16 What is an
antibiotic? Name some. 17 Who uses a microscope? What
can it do? 18 When is a first aid given? 19 Explain the
term medicine. 20 Name the medical specialty that
involves operations.
5
2 Translate the following words and phrases in written
form:
лікар; лікувати; хірургія; процедура; хворий; заразна
хвороба; чума; різати; попередження хвороби;
аптека; прописувати (ліки); мікроб; речовина; наука;
діагностика; лікування; пошкодження; голка; скелет;
кістка; череп; рентген; ребро; застуда; хребет;
нездоров′я; внутрішні органи; лікування; медична
сестра; зразки крові, сечі, тканини; дати професійну
пораду; перша допомога; небезпечний; страхування.
Supplementary reading. First aid. What shoud I
do?
1 - What should I do if someone's clothes catch fire?
- First of all, put out the fire by wrapping the
victim in a coat or blanket, by turning him over on the
ground in dirt or sand, or by putting water over him.
Next, check to see if the person is breathing and his heart
is beating. Then, call or ask someone to call an
ambulance.
2 - What should I tell the person who answers the phone
about the burn victim?
- First, say that someone has been burned. Tell the
person that the victim is breathing and that you can feel a
pulse. Next, give your name and the exact location where
the ambulance should go. Include the address, building
6
and room or apartment number. Stay calm and answer all
questions.
3 - What should I do if a person stops breathing?
- First, turn the person on his back. Then lift his head
back, open his mouth, and be certain that his tongue has
not fallen in his throat. Next, squeeze his nose closed and
cover his mouth with your mouth. Breathe into his mouth
until his chest raises up. Blow into his mouth three times;
then check to see if he is exhaling. Change the position of
his head if no air comes out and try again. Blow into his
mouth about 12 times a minute. Don't stop this procedure
until the victim can breathe by himself or an ambulance
arrives.
4 - What should I do if the person's heart stops beating?
- Place both your hands on the victim's chest and
apply firm pressure, then release. Again apply pressure and
release. Work with a continuous sequence of pressure and
release until the heart starts to beat again.
5 - What should I do for giving first aid for a broken
ankle?
- First you make the injured person comfortable and
carefully take off his shoe or boot. Don't twist the ankle
during this procedure. Second, bend a magazine or
newspaper into a U shape. Place the magazine or
newspaper under the foot and along the sides of the injured
ankle. Third, tie the magazine or newspaper around the
lower leg with a long narrow piece of cloth or nylon
stocking to make a firm support around the ankle. Do not
allow the accident victim try to walk on a broken ankie.
7
Carry him to the doctor.
Read the text, after you have read it:
 indentify and describe how your bones, muscles, skin,
and nervous system help keep you healthy
 discuss how body parts work for digestion, circulation,
and respiration.
The Human Body
The human body is like a wonderful machine.
However, no machine can do the things your body can
do. All body parts work together to help keep you
healthy.
Your body has more than 200 bones. It also has more
than 600 muscles. Bones and muscles give your body
support. As a result, you walk, sit, and stand. These
actions are also under the control of your nervous system.
Body Parts
A cell is the smallest living part of your body. Cells
have different shapes and sizes. Each kind of cell has a
different job to do. Brain cells do one job while skin cells
do another job.
Cells in parts of your body form tissues. A tissue is a
group of cells that work together to do a special job. All
body parts are made of tissues. Bone and muscle are
8
types of tissues.
An organ is a body part made of different kinds of
tissues. Your eye is an organ. Your heart is an organ.
What other body organs can you name?
Organs in your body form a body system. A body
system is a group of organs that work together to do a
certain job. Your lungs and air passages are part of a body
system.
Bones
Bones form a frame that supports your body. They are
also place of attachment for muscles. The bony frame in
your body is called a skeleton. Bones of the skeleton
protect many of your body organs. Skull bones protect
your brain. Ribs protect your heart and lungs. Your back
bones protect your spinal cord.
Blood cells are made inside the long bones in your
body. These bones contain marrow. Bone marrow is soft
tissue in the center of long bones.
Bones are joined to other bones. A joint is the place
where two bones meet. Joints allow your body to move in
certain ways. The joint at your knee allows you to bend
your leg. Joints in your hand allow you to bend your
fingers. Joints in your back allow you to bend at the waist.
Muscles
Muscles are a type of tissue that helps your body in
many ways. All muscles in the body are a part of the
muscular system.
9
Muscles help you do many tasks. You can control
muscles that help you walk, run, and talk. However, you
cannot control other muscles, such as your heart muscle.
Your heart muscle pumps blood throughout your body.
Muscles around your ribs help you breathe. Muscles in
your stomach help to digest food.
Many muscles work in pairs. When one muscle
contracts, the other one relaxes. To contract means to
become smaller. When a muscle contracts, it becomes
shorter and thicker. The two ends of the muscle come
closer together. When a muscle contracts, it pulls on the
bone to which it is attached. This will cause the bone to
move. When a muscle relaxes, it stretches and becomes
longer.
Skin
Skin is the largest organ in the body. Skin helps
control body temperature. When the body is warm, water
is lost through the skin in the form of sweat. As water is
lost, heat escapes from the body. Sweating helps keep the
body cool. When the body is cool, less heat is lost
through the skin. This helps keep the body warm.
Skin helps protect the body against germs. Broken
skin lets germs enter the body. It is important to wash
broken skin to get rid of dirt and germs.
Skin on all parts of your body is made of two layers
of tissue. Each layer is made of special cells.
10
Nerves and Sense Organs
The human body contains millions of neurons.
Neurons are nerve cells that help control body activities.
They are a part of the nervous system.
The brain is a mass of neurons found within the skull.
There are billions of neurons in the brain. The spinal cord
is a long column of neurons. It extends down the back
from the base of the brain.
Neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and throughout the
body form a network. This network carries messages
between the brain and the entire body to help the body
work.
Sense organs are also part of the nervous system. The
five senses are seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and
smelling Messages travel through neurons from the sense
organs to the brain. For example, messages from the
tongue travel to the brain. This lets you know the taste of
foods.
Your senses help protect your health. Your sense of
hearing warns you when a car is coming. Your sense of
smell can warn you of smoke from a fire. How can your
other senses protect you?
Energy and Transport
Certain parts of a car work together to help the car use
energy. The energy moves throughout the engine to move
the car. Other parts work together to help get rid of wastes
from the car. In much the same way, your body needs
energy to work. Some body systems help you use energy.
11
Others help get rid of body wastes.
Digestion
The food you eat is not in a form your body cells
can use. It must be changed to supply your body with
energy. All cells need energy in order to function.
Digestion is the process of changing food in your body.
The food is changed into materials that can enter your
bloodstream. Your blood carries these digested food
materials to a body cells.
Within the cells, oxygen combines with these food
materials. This causes energy to be released. This energy
is used to help your body do many things.
Circulation
The heart is a muscle that pumps blood. It is the
main organ of circulation. Circulation is the transport of
blood throughout your body. Blood flows throughout
your body in blood vessels. The heart and blood vessels
make up your circulatory system.
There are three kinds of blood vessels. Arteries are
blood vessels that carry blood away from your heart.
Most arteries carry oxygen and digested food to cells in
your body. Capillaries are very small blood vessels that
connect arteries to veins. Veins are blood vessels that
return blood to your heart.
Respiration
Without oxygen, body cells can live only a few
12
minutes. The air you breathe contains oxygen. Your body
gets oxygen when you inhale. This happens through a
process called respiration. Respiration is the exchange of
gases within the body.
The circulatory system helps with respiration. Your
blood picks up oxygen from your lungs. In this way,
oxygen is carried throughout your body. As your body
cells use oxygen, a waste gas called carbon dioxide is
produced. Carbon dioxide is carried in veins back to your
heart and then back to your lungs. Carbon dioxide is
removed from your lungs when you exhale.
The respiratory system helps keep you healthy. When
you inhale, air is warmed by blood vessels inside your
nose. Mucus inside your nose traps dirt that may be in the
air. Mucus is a liquid that moistens and protects some
body parts. Your nose and throat contain mucus. Sneezing
helps your body get rid of dirt and mucus trapped in the
airway.
All body systems work together. You can take
actions to protect them and keep them healthy. Protect
your respiratory system. Do not smoke. Smoking harms
your lungs. It is a leading cause of lung cancer.
1 Learn the following life skills:
 Help keep your bones strong by eating dairy
products and by exercising.
 Wash all cuts to keep germs from entering your
body.
 Get plenty of sleep and rest to keep your nervous
13
system healthy.
 Eat fruits and vegetables for healthy digestion.
 Help keep your respiratory system healthy by not
smoking.
2 Put a special question to the italicized words:
1 The body is made up of cells, tissues, organs, and
systems.
2 Bones give the body support and help protect some
body organs.
3 Many different kinds of muscles help the body move.
4 The skin helps control body temperature and keep
germs from entering the body.
5 Nerves and sense organs help the body respond to its
environment.
6 The digestive system helps the body use food.
7 Blood moves through the body in arteries, capillaries,
and veins.
8 The respiratory system helps the cells in the body
exchange gases.
3 Complete each sentence with the correct word:
bone marrow
joint
respiration
capillaries
mucus
skeleton
circulation
neuron
tissue
digestion
organ
veins
14
1 A___is a part of the body where two bones
meet.
2 The heart is an example of an__ .
3 The process of changing food in the body is called__ .
4 The___is a bony frame that supports the body.
5 ___is the soft tissue in the center of long
bones.
6 ___are nerve cells.
7 The heart is the main organ of___ .
8 Breaching is a part of____ .
9 Different kinds of cells work together to foi type of___
10 Small blood vessels that connect arteries to are
called___ .
4 Answer the questions:
1 How do cells and tissues differ?
2 How are bones important to your health?
3 How can you help keep your bones healthy?
4 How does your heart muscle keep you alive?
5 How does your skin help keep you healthy?
6 Why should you wash your skin if you get a cut?
7 How can a sense organ help protect you?
8 What is the purpose of digestion in the body?
9 How are arteries and veins different?
10 How does your respiratory system help keep you
healthy?
5 Use the life skills from this chapter to respond to the
following questions:
15
Situation: You have just learned about ways to keep your
bones strong. You are in the cafeteria line at university.
You have a choice of milk, chocolate cake, cheese,
potato chips, soda pop, and yogurt.
1 What foods would you choose for healthy bones?
2 What other foods might keep your bones healthy?
6 Think about it:
1 Why is the heart considered an organ?
2 Why is calcium important to the body?
3 Why does food need to be digested?
4 Why are arteries important?
5 What can you do to lower your risks of developing
lung cancer?
7 Describe two ways each of your sense organs help keep
you healthy. Ask others for ways they believe their sense
organs help them stay healthy.
Health Service in Ukraine
The main principle of our Health Service is to
prevent diseases, to strengthen the health of the
people and to increase their longevity.
The Health Network of Ukraine comprises a great
number of hospitals, policlinics, out-patient
departments and research institutes.
16
In Ukraine there are large centres of cardiology,
surgery, oncology, ophthalmology, the First Aid
Stations where many people are examined and treated.
New medical institutions are built and equipped with
modern medical apparatuses and devices.
We have different sanatoria and rest-homes where
a lot of our people rest and take the course of treatment.
Many of them get sanatorium accomodation free of
charge or pay only 10 per cent of the total cost of the
voucher.
Much attention is paid to the health protection of
mother and child. Mothers are given maternity leaves
and paid leaves until the baby is three years old. The
mother's job is reserved during the definite period.
We have maternity homes, nurseries, kindergartens
and special hospitals.
There are rest-homes and sanatoria for mothers and
children too. At present many sanatoria and resthomes are presented to the mothers and children
suffered from Chornobyl tragedy. Many of them
have the treatment and rest in other countries.
As for medical personnel much attention is paid to the
training of doctors, nurses, obstetricians and others as
they must take care about the health of our people.
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the main principle of our Health Service? 2.
What medical institutions does the Health Network of
Ukraine comprise? 3. Are there large centres of
17
cardiology, surgery, oncology and others in Ukraine?
4.Are new medical institutions built? 5. Where do a lot
of our people rest and take the course of treatment?
6. Is much attention paid to the health protection of
mother and child? 7. What medical institutions do we
have for mothers and children? 8. Whom are many
sanatoria and rest-homes presented to? 9. Is much
attention paid to the training of medical personnel?
Health Care System in the USA
Health care in the USA is organized in three levels:
family doctor, the medical institution or hospital and the
USA Public Health Service.
A private doctor, they call him a family doctor, gives
his patients regular examinations and inoculations. In
case professional service and care is needed the family
doctor arranges for the specialist or a hospital for his
patient. The family doctor receives pay directly from the
patient. A family doctor either has its own private office or
works with several other doctors in the so-called group
practice. Many Americans have no family doctor and they
come directly to hospital for all their medical needs.
The hospital provides health care to the sick and
injured. They have government-financed and propriety
hospitals. The patients are admitted to hospitals or clinics
staffed by consulting physicians, residents, interns and
18
highly skilled nurses. In some hospitals pastoral care is
available, and pastors visit their parishioners at any time.
Most hospitals have at least the following major medical
departments and units: surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology,
pediatrics and general medicine. They may also have trauma
and intensive care unit, neurosurgical, renal care unit and
psychiatric unit. Emergency units are very special areas in
the hospital. The Emergency patients acquire immediate
attention.
The Public Health Service in the USA is the leading
agency in the policy to supply knowledge, facilities and
professionals to the health sector.
The United States have the most expensive health care
system in the world in dollars per capita and fraction of
Gross National Product. The dynamics of health care
system drives them to use more and more services that are
more and more sophisticated and more and more costly.
As a result, the annual rate of increase of health care
expenditures seriously challenges the financial capability of
the United States.
We must not forget about the high cost of medical care in
the USA. Most of the population have private health
insurance. Approximately 75 per cent of the population
have their health insurance, life insurance, disability
protection and retirement benefits at their place of
employment. Most employers and their families now pay
more than 50 per cent of the cost of health insurance. The
great cost of medical care in the country and a great number
of people who could not pay for it had forced the federal
19
government to develop two programs-Medicaid and
Medicare. Medicaid, started in 1966, is a federal-state
program, providing free medical care for the poor and
aged, for the blind and dependent children. Medicare,
started in 1967, is a federal program providing free
medical care for aged Americans over 65, those, who in
the past had the greatest medical expenses.
The chief scientific problems facing American medicine
are the same as those facing the Ukrainian medicine, they
are heart diseases and cancer. The chief causes of suffering
and death today are cancer and diseases of the heart and
blood vessels, including hypertension, stroke and
atherosclerosis. Also of major importance in America are
illnesses of aging and disabilities caused by arthritis,
mental diseases, drug addiction and genetic problems.
Americans must seek new knowledge about the causes and
cure of these diseases.
1 Answer the following questions.
1 In what levels is health care in the USA organized?
2 What does each level provide?
3 Is health care system in the USA expensive or cheap?
4 What forced the federal government to develop such
programs as Medicaid and Medicare?
5 What are the chief causes of suffering and death in
the USA today?
2 Answer your friend's questions. Use in your answers
words and word combinations given in brackets (work in
20
pairs).
1 What kinds of hospitals are there in America?
(government-financed, private hospitals).
2 What is the stuff of hospitals or clinics in America?
(consulting physicians, residents, interns, highly skilled
nurses, pastoral care).
3 What departments are there at American
hospitals? (surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology, pediatrics,
general medicine, neurosurgery, a renal care unit, a
psychiatric unit, an emergency unit).
4 What is Medicaid? (a federal state program, to
provide free medical care, the poor, the blind, dependent
children).
5 What is Medicare? (a federal program, a health
insurance program, the elderly and disabled, to provide
free medical care, aged Americans).
National Health Service in Great Britain
The main organ of Health Service in Great Britain is the
National Health Service. The National Health Service Act
was passed through parliament in 1946 and in 1948 this Act
received the Royal Assent and was brought into operation.
The N.H.S. consists of three parts: the Local Health
Authorities, the General Practitioners and Hospitals or
Specialist Services.
The Local Health Authority has an obligation to
21
make arrangements with the General Practitioners for the
vaccination of those who live within its area. The Hospitals
and Specialist Services have definite interrelations too. The
role of the family doctor is very important in the Health
Service. Not all patients need highly specialized attention
and the GP does invaluable work by filtering off 90 per
cent of the total medical work
Most medical treatment in Great Britain is free but
charges are made for drugs, spectacles and dental care.
Free emergency medical treatment is given to any visitor
from abroad who becomes ill while staying in the country.
But those who come to England specially for treatment
must pay for it.
The National Health Service provides free medical
treatment both in hospital and outside. People may use
the N.H.S. and they may go to doctors as private patients.
Many people who have enough money prefer to be private
patients because they think that they can in that way
establish more personal relations with the doctor or
because they do not want to be put in a large room with
other patients. The patient in England can choose between
the N.H.S. and private treatment at any time. Moreover
he can take one part with the service, the other privately. If
a patient is dissatisfied with his N.H.S. family doctor or
dentist, he may change to another one. In fact, 97% of the
population use the N.H.S.
This freedom of choice applies to doctors and dentists
too. All doctors may take part in the Family Doctor
System and most of them do so. This service is free to
22
everyone. They can choose whether they want to join the
N.H.S. or not and if they can have N.H.S. and private
patients. Physicians may have private practice receiving the
pay directly from the patients for their medical advice.
N.H.S. doctors are paid by the Government, the pay
depending on the number of the patients they have served
every month.
The hospital service includes general and special
hospitals, tuberculosis sanatoria, infectious disease units,
and all forms of specialized treatment together with the
provision of most surgical and medical needs. Besides the
hospitals there are infirmatories and nursing homes. An
infirmatory is a room in an institution used for sick
people. A nursing home is usually a "private small hospital
for the patients and aged people. In fact, half of the hospitals
are over 100 years old. They were built in the nineteenth
century, they are small with about 200 beds. Such hospitals
are uneconomic and cannot provide a full range of services,
which require a district hospital of 800 beds or more. Now
they have more than 150 health centres in the U.K. Health
centres provide opportunities for hospital specialists and
GPs. Health centres contain all the special diagnostic and
therapeutic services which family doctors need, such
as electrocardiography, X-ray, physiotherapy, etc. Family
doctors have access to hospital resources and can be
brought into close relationship with hospital doctors.
Health centres are the bases of primary care.
There are centres, which provide consultant services in
general medicine and surgery, ear-nose-throat diseases,
23
obstetrics and gynaecology, ophthalmology, psychiatry
and orthopaedics. All consultations in the centres are by
appointment only. The patient is given a definite time at
which to attend. Each doctor decides for himself how many
patients he can examine for an hour. It must be born in
mind that the patient is the most important person in the
health centre and all the energies of the medical personnel
are directed to helping him as much as possible.
1 Answer the following questions:
1 When was the N.H.S. brought into operation?
2 What parts does the National Health Service consist of?
3 Are there any interrelations between these parts?
4 Are there private patients in Great Britain?
2 Arrange the following expressions according to the
contents (keep to a logical consistency)
a) Types of hospitals in the U.K.
b) The interrelations between the three parts of the
N.H.S.
c) Freedom of choice applied to doctors and
dentists.
d) The N.H.S. and its structure.
e) Problems of British health care system.
f) Freedom of choice of medical treatment.
g) Health centres in the U.K.
3 Summarize the text using the headings organized by
you in a logical consistency.
24
Pharmacology
Pharmacology may be defined most simply as the
study of drugs. In the broadest sense it includes all the
scientific knowledge of drugs, such as the name, source,
physical and chemical properties, and the mixing or
preparing of drugs in the form of medicine. It is concerned
also with physiological actions of drugs - their absorption,
action, and fate in the body - and with their therapeutic
uses, as well as the poisonous effects that result from over
dosage.
A drug is a chemical substance that affects living
protoplasm and does not act as a food. It is used in the
cure, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or animals.
In addition, drugs alleviate suffering and pain.
The subject of pharmacology may be divided into a
number of distinct sciences such as pharmacognosy,
pharmacy, posology, toxicology, pharmacodynamics, and
pharmacotherapeutics.
Pharmacognosy is a descriptive science and is
concerned with the recognition, quality, purity by
macroscopic and microscopic means, and identification of
plants and animal drugs.
Pharmacy deals with the preparation, stability,
preservation, and storage of drugs. From these drugs the
pharmacist prepares compounds, and dispenses medicines.
Most drugs are prepared by pharmaceutical manufacturers
and are distributed to the pharmacy or hospital in such
suitable dosage forms as tablets, capsules, liquid
25
preparations, or sterile solutions for injection. The
pharmacist now has no less a responsible role in properly
dispensing the preparations in finished forms than when
he powdered, dissolved, mixed, and otherwise
compounded prescriptions. He stiff performs these
functions for many of these orders.
Posology is concerned with the dosage or amount
of a drug given in the treatment of disease. There is a
minimum, maximum, usual or therapeutic, and toxic dose
for each drug. The most important is the usual dose,
which is the oral dose for an adult weighing 70 kg. There
are a number of conditions thai modify the dose of a
drug.
Pharmacodynamics is concerned with the response
of Jiving tissues to chemical stimuli, that is, the action of
drugs on the living organism in the absence of disease. It
is one of the newest biological sciences and is closely
associated with physiology, biochemistry, pathology, and
microbiology. It is unique in that its interest is focused on
drugs. It is a study of the absorption, fate, excretion, and
action of a foreign substance in the body.
Purpose of Pharmacology
The purpose of pharmacology as a pure science is to determine the response of living tissues to chemical stimuli,
chiefly drugs or prospective drugs on living tissues of the
body in the absence of disease, as, for example, in
inducing sleep or exciting to retard sleep. It also attempts
to correlate chemical structure with response and to
classify chemically related drugs into groups such as the
26
barbiturates and the sulfonamides.
As an applied or practical science, it has the
following functions: 1) to test drugs quantitatively and
standardize them so that they are available to the doctor
and patient in a uniform and dependable form; 2) to
determine how drugs produce their effects on the animal
body, and 3) to develop new drugs.
Answer the following questions:
1 What is Pharmacology? 2 What is the definition of
Pharmacology as a science? 3 Is Pharmacology concerned
with therapeutic use of drugs? 4 What do drugs affect? 5
What are the drugs used in? 6 What branches of
Pharmacology do you know? 7 What is the purpose of
Pharmacognosy? 8 What does Pharmacy deal with? 9 Who
prepares medicines? 10 Who is responsible in properly
dispensing of medicines? 11 What is the scope of
Posology? 12 What may the overdosage of drugs cause?
13 How do you understand the words "usual dose"? 14
What does Pharmacodynamics deal with? 15 What is the
purpose of Pharmacology as an applied science? 16 What
are the functions of Pharmacology as a pure science?
Supplementary reading. Drugs Used as
Medicines
There are two kinds of drugs used as medicines. One
27
kind is called over-the-counter drugs. An over-thecounter (OTC) drug is a drug that can be bought
without a doctor's written order.
OTC drugs can help people who have mild health
problems. OTC drugs can help stop a cough or relieve a
headache. However, OTC drugs can be harmful. Harm
may result if they are not used correctly. The labels on
these drug containers give important information. They
tell how much of the drug to take. They tell how often the
drug is to be used.
Over-the-counter drug labels also have warnings.
A warning is a statement telling you that the drug may
not be right for you. It tells when you should not take the
drug. A warning may tell you to contact a doctor if an
illness continues for a long time.
The second kind of drug used as medicine is a
prescription drug. A prescription drug is a drug ordered
in writing by a doctor. The doctor writes the prescription
for one specific person. The kind of health problem that
needs treatment must be considered. The doctor must
also consider the person's weight and height. A drug that
is right for one person may not be right for another.
OTS and prescription drugs can cause side effects.
A side effect is an unwanted body change caused by a
drug. A headache or an upset stomach are examples of
side effects. Medicine labels have warnings about
possible side effects. Stop taking any medicine if you
have a side effect. Ask the doctor who ordered the drug.
The doctor may then prescribe a different kind of drug.
28
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization is one of a number
of intergovernmental agencies which work in close
relationship with each other and with the UN to which they
are affiliated. Thus, by definition, and in line with the UN
Charter, the World Health Organization (WHO) is the
world's agency for international cooperation in improving
the physical and menial health of all. It helps member
nations in launching campaigns to stamp out mass
diseases, coordinates efforts to prevent the spread of
epidemics, trains health workers at all levels, and promotes
international medical research.
The idea of having an international body to deal with
problems of world health dates back to 1943, the year that
saw the setting up of the United Nations as such. Already
at that time, the founding members unanimously agreed
that an "International health organization" should be set up.
As a result, the Interim Commission of the World Health
Organization came into being the following year and, on
April 7, 1948, the permanent organization was formally
constituted.
WHO has its headquarters in Geneva. Switzerland,
and its policies are agreed upon of the annual meetings of
the World Health Assembly.
WHO has achieved an impressive record in pursuing
its main aim, especially in The battle against some of the
world's most virulent diseases. Its most remarkable success
has been the campaign against smallpox and malaria, the
29
former now completely eradicated from the earth.
Malaria has been eliminated or brought under
control in many countries where n once spread
debilitation and death.
Intensive campaigns are being waged against
yellow fever, tuberculosis and leprosy. WHO is helping a
total of more than twenty countries to fight trachoma, a
preventable eye disease, which is known to have brought
blindness to two million people. It has played a part of
honour in the development and testing of poliomyelitis
and measles vaccines, and it has kept a watch on cholera,
plague, yellow fever, influenza and rabies to give a
timely warning lo national health authorities.
In recent years, the emphasis has shifted to the
long-term tasks of building tip permanent health services
and improving environmental conditions to eliminate the
causes of diseases, build up resistance and maintain the
progress won. In other words, the stress is more on
prevention than on cure,
The World Health Organization now gives
extensive support to doctors' training, nursing services to
mothers and children, family planning as a means of
improving family health, water supply and waste disposal
systems and lo health laboratories. More than ever
before, WHO's efforts are aimed at environmental control
on an international scale. WHO has a great task ahead of
it coordinating the worldwide campaign against AIDS
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
Cholera, thought to be under control in most
30
countries, suddenly spread and invaded areas where it had
not been seen for fifty years. Insects began developing
resistance to insecticides, thus foiling disease control
programmer.
In spite of all this, WHO stands out as an
indispensable international health effort-coordinating
centre. There is good enough reason to celebrate the World
Health Organization's anniversary on April 7-th as World
Health Day.
1 Answer the following questions:
1 When was WHO founded and why? 2 What has been
WHO’s part in the vaccination and inoculation campaigns?
3 What are the present-day objectives pursued by WHO? 4
Why are insects resistant to insecticides? 5 What about the
case of cholera? 6 Why is WHO increasingly concerned
with environmental problems? 7 Is WHO concerned with
mental as well as physical health? 8 Where are the
headquarters of WHO? 9 Do failures of any kind affect the
image of WHO as a whole? 10 What is the significance of
April 7th?
2 Write a plan of the text.
Supplementary reading. World Health
Organization. Definition of Health
As sciense has progressed, the definition of health has
evolved. One of the most frequently quoted definitions is
the one presented in 1947 by the World Health
Organization (WHO). WHO states that health is “a state
of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO,
1947, p. 1). Thus, according to WHO, to be healthy, a
person must be in a state of well-being physically,
mentally, and socially. Health professionals have found
this concept problematic because achieving a state of
“health” seems to be an unrealistic goal. This definition
does not allow for degrees of health or illness, and it fails
to reflect the dynamic, ever-changing nature of health.
A concept related to health is homeostasis, or internal
equilibrium or balance. When a person experiences a
disturbance in homeostasis, he or she is considered to be
“unhealthy”. Like the WHO definition of health, this
concept is losing popularity because “stasis” implies an
unchanging state and most theorists today believe that
health is always changing.
3 Now that you have read the text, answered the questions
and written your plan, render the text.
31
32
Make a report about the health state of an individual,
using the given scheme:
Support
Genetic
Cognitive
systems
influence
abilities
Previous
health
experiences
Health
beliefs/
practices
Age
Health state
of an
individual
Standart
of living
Religion
Sex
Environment/
life style
Culture
Geographic
location
Outpatient Treatment
Patients in need of medical treatment usually go to
see their family doctor in his consulting room or surgery.
As a rule, they have to wait in the waiting room until their
turn comes.
In order to make the patient's diagnosis, the GP must
first learn about the common symptoms, the subjective
manifestations of the patient's chief complaint. He will
33
want to know if the patient is running a temperature, and
if so, he will take it or ask the patient to take it, using a
thermometer.
Apart from attacks of fever, the most common
symptoms include: sweating, general body ache,
headache, muscle or joint ache, malaise, nausea,
diarrhoea, constipation and breathlessness. The patient
may also complain of sore throat, cough, giddiness,
weakness, tremor and pain.
On examination (0/E in clinical notes), the doctor
may find rash, swelling, distention or tumour. These
belong among objective findings called signs which also
include the results of routine laboratory examinations of
the blood, sputum, urine and stools and possibly the
cerebrospinal fluid, too.
In order to obtain a clear clinical picture, the doctor
may want to have the patient X-rayed, or to have him
undergo an ECG (electrocardiographic) or EEG
(electroencephalographic) investigation. He may want to
have his gastric juices analyzed, bronchoscopy,
proctoscopy, cystoscopy etc. performed.
In his surgery, the GP is much more likely to use,
first of all, the four classical methods of:
inspection - to ascertain visible signs of the
patient's condition; thus for instance, the appearance of
the patient's tongue (furred, florid or pale, moist or dry or
glazed as in fever) is a valuable sign;
palpation - to feel tumour, swelling, distention, the
presence of tenderness, etc;
34
percussion - by tapping the chest or other parts of
!he body and listening to the quality of the note, whether
resonant or dull, impaired, and so on;
auscultation - to hear chest sounds, irregularity of
heart beat, peristaltic sounds in ihe abdominal cavity, etc.
In the course of the examination in his surgery, the
doctor makes use of his stethoscope, speculum,
magnifying glass and other aids, to make the diagnosis as
accurate as possible.
In examining the patient, the doctor proceeds, as a
rule, from the top of the head down the neck, to the chest
and abdomen, and finally to the extremities.
This - together with the patient's past history and
family history - helps to establish a reliable diagnosis and
to determine the kind of treatment. Then, the GP is in a
position to write out a prescription to recommend bed rest
or hospitalization, to invite the patient for interview or, if
necessary, to refer him to a specialist.
Answer the following questions:
1 Where do people usually go if they need medical
treatment?
2 What must the GP do first to establish a reliable
diagnosis?
3 What do patients most commonly complain of?
4 What is usually the subject of routine laboratory
investigation?
5 What are the four classical methods of examining a
patient?
35
6 What is the aim of palpation (percussion, auscultation)?
7 What helps a doctor to make a diagnosis?
Supplementary reading. General Practitioner
Britain has a two-tier system of medical care. A
person who is ill goes first to a primary care physician
or general practitioner. The general practitioner treats
most problems himself, and refers patients with unusual
or serious illnesses to specialists for secondary care.
The two-tier system has several advantages.
Primary care is a cheap and accessible way of treating
minor illnesses. The patient can consult the same doctor
for almost all illnesses. Specialists do not waste their
time on simple problems. In serious illness the general
practitioner helps the patient to find the most appropriate
specialist.
General practice is the "gateway" to specialist
health care. But it is also becoming a specialty in its own
right. In Britain 99 percent of the population is registered
with a general practitioner. Two-thirds of the population
visit a general practitioner every year and 98 percent do
so at least once every five years. The general practitioner
can therefore offer preventive medicine and health
education to almost everyone in the community. In the
past the general practitioner dealt only with "presenting
complaints", that is, the symptoms and anxieties which
36
patients brought along to the doctor. This is called reactive
medicine, where the doctor does nothing until the patient
has noticed that something is wrong. Modern general
practice involves pro-active medicine, where the doctor
makes contact with healthy people and offers medical care
to people who have not asked for it. An example of proactive medicine is cervical cancer screening.
Advice from a general practitioner to stop smoking
is the most cost-effective health policy in the developed
world. Many general practitioners now organize "lifestyle"
clinics, where patients can come for advice about smoking,
diet, alcohol, exercise or stress reduction.
Perhaps the most important skill in general practice
is communication. Even when a patient has seen a
specialist, it is the general practitioner who explains the
diagnosis to the patient and supervises the treatment of the
illness. If the patient does not understand the problem, or if
he finds the treatment painful or tedious, he may not
follow the doctor's advice. It is important to involve the
patient in his own care. The days of "doctor's orders" are
gone. Some old-fashioned general practitioners do not like
this new system, in which the patient often knows as much
about his illness as the doctor, but many general
practitioners find it both challenging and rewarding.
The general practitioner is also known as the family
doctor. He provides primary care for patients "from the
cradle to grave". If one member of a family has a serious
illness, the general practitioner can give support and advice
to the rest of the family. If necessary, the general
37
practitioner visits the patient at home. This unique
relationship is often envied by other countries.
Some specialists still think of general practice as a
low-status and uninteresting branch of medicine. They
think that the general practitioner does little more than
give out aspirin and weigh babies. But good general
practice demands a wide range of skills The general
practitioner should know a little about every branch of
medicine, and know when to ask a specialist for advice.
To many people in the community, the general
practitioner is "my doctor" - healer, adviser, helper and
friend. He must also be a manager, an accountant and an
administrator. Of all doctors, the general practitioner
enjoys the greatest variety of medical problems, the most
satisfying doctor -patient relationships, and the greatest
potential for improving the health of an entire
community.
Inpatient Treatment
The general practitioner refers a patient to the
hospital in case his state is too serious to be coped with in
the polyclinic. Emergencies are taken to the hospital even
without the family doctor's recommendation. List
patients are normally admitted straight to the department
or ward concerned.
On admission the patient's history is taken as part
38
of the clinical case-taking. This includes complete physical
examination and laboratory studies, the systematic
classification of the common symptoms and signs as well
as compilation of the patient's case record (clinical notes).
Apart from the patient's personal data (name - both
Christian and surname, address, age, social status,
occupation etc.) the case record should contain the date of
admission and discharge, the historian's name and
diagnosis.
The basic component unit of the inpatient
department is called the ward where palienis are admitted
for treatment. A ward unit consists of rooms for patients, a
treatment room, sisters' room, bathrooms and lavatories. In
charge of each ward is the ward sister. The duties of the
nursing staff include dressing wounds, giving out
medicines, taking the temperature, managing transfusions,
conducting certain investigations and. in general, carrying
out medical orders.
The patients are seen daily by the medical staff,
usually during the morning ward round. Most of the
operations are also performed during the morning; the
place is the operating theatre with the surgeon being
assisted - among other staff- by the instrumental sister and
theatre sister.
Some large hospitals include an accident unit, an
intensive care unit, a chest surgery unit, a head injuries
unit, plastic surgery and burns units, a rehabilitation
department, a department of physiotherapy, a blood
transfusion department, and other special purpose units.
39
Answer the questions:
1 In what case does the GP refer a patient to the
hospital?
2 What does clinical case-taking involve?
3 What is a ward?
4 What does a ward unit consist of?
5 What does the term “morning round” mean?
6 What units do the large hospitals include?
Cells
The human body is composed entirely of cells, the
products of cells, and various fluids. These cells
represent the basic structural units of the body; they are
the building blocks from which all larger parts are
formed. They are also the functional units, because
whatever a body part can do is the result of activities
within its cells.
Cells account for the shape, organization, and
construction of the body and carry on its life processes.
In addition, they can reproduce and thus provide the new
cells needed for growth, development, and the
replacement of worn and injured tissues.
A human cell is made of two main components:
the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nucleus contains DNA
and is responsible for giving the cell instructions and
passing on hereditary information. Cytoplasm contains
40
the nucleus and makes up the body of the cell. It is
responsible for movement, protein production, and
converting substances into chemical energy.
Nucleus
The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by two
membranes known as the nuclear envelope. The nucleus
contains molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
which store the hereditary information responsible for cell
growth and reproduction. This information is divided into
46 chromosomes. Enzymes in the nucleus copy parts of the
DNA into strands of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Each
segment of a chromosome used to produce a strand of
RNA is known as a gene. Some types of RNA (messenger)
are used to produce new copies of DNA. Other types
(ribosomal) enter the cytoplasm through the nucleic
membrane. There they form protein-RNA structures
known as ribosomes, used as blueprints for producing
molecules that fuel and organize cell activity.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is contained inside the plasma
membrane. Nutrients and waste materials pass through this
membrane by slowly dissolving through or by way of
channels formed out of proteins. Similar internal
membranes distinguish organelles, compartments in the
cell that specialize in a particular function, from the
cytoplasm. Ribosomes and organelles inhabit the
cytoplasm as separate membrane-bordered chemical and
molecular environments.
Ribosomes. Free-floating ribosomes use proteins to
41
make enzymes, structural supports, and elements used for
movement. Other ribosomes attached to a cluster of
flattened, membranous sacs (endoplasmic reticulum)
build proteins that are stored, used in membranes, or
relapsed from the cell altogether. The Golgi complex,
another system of sacs, modifies proteins made in the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Some Types of Organelles. The mitochondrion
produces most of the chemical energy needed by the cell.
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids provide
fuel for reactions inside the mitochondria that release
energy to spur cell growth and development.
The lysosome contains the cell's digestive
enzymes. Substances engulfed by the cell may be
directed to a lysosome for digestion. In case of disease or
as part of cell division, lysosomes may release their
enzymes into the cytoplasm, killing the cell.
Microrubules and microfilaments are used for cell
locomotion. They also form the cytoskeleton, an internal
structure that supports the cell.
Answer the questions:
1 Name the two major parts of a cell.
2 What are the general functions of these two parts?
3 Give an example to illustrate that the shape of a cell is
related to its function.
4 What is the function of the Golgi complex?
5 Why are mitochondria sometimes called the
“powerhouses of cells”?
42
6 Describe the functions of microfilaments and
microtubules.
Read and translate the following sentences:
Active transport:
a) Active transport is responsible for movement of
molecules or ions from regions of lower
concentration to regions of higher concentration.
b) It requires cellular energy and involves action of
carrier molecules in the cell membrane.
Endocytosis:
a) Pinocytosis is a process by which a cell
membrane engulfs tiny droplets of liquid.
b) Phagocytosis is a process by which a cell
membrane engulfs solid particles.
c) Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a process by
which receptor proteins combine with specific
kinds of molecules in the cell surroundings, and
the combinations are engulfed.
Life Cycle of a Cell:
1 The life cycle of a cell includes mitosis, cytoplasmic
division, interphase, and differentiation.
2 Mitosis:
a) Mitosis is the division and distribution of
nuclear parts to daughter cells during cell
reproduction.
b) The stages of mitosis include prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
3 Citoplasmic division is a process by which cytoplasm
43
is divided into two portions following mitosis.
4 Interphase:
a) Interphase is the stage in the life cycle when a
cell grows and forms new organelles.
b) It terminates when the cell begins to undergo
mitosis.
5 Cell differentiation involves the development of
specialized structures and functions.
Tissues
Cells, the basic units of structure and function within the
human organism, are organized into groups and layers
called tissues. Each type of tissue is composed of similar
cells that are specialized to carry on particular functions.
For example, epithelial tissues form protective coverings
and function in secretion and absorption; connective
tissues provide support for softer body parts and bind
structures together; muscle tissues are responsible for
producing body movements; and nerve tissue is
specialized to conduct impulses that help control and
coordinate body activities.
Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body.
They cover all body surfaces—inside and out—and are
the major tissues of glands.
Since epithelium covers organs, forms the inner
44
lining of body cavities, and lines hollow organs, it
always has a free surface—one that is exposed to the
outside or to an open space internally.
As a rule, epithelial tissues lack blood vessels.
However, they are nourished by substances that diffuse
from underlying connective tissues, which are well supplied with blood vessels.
Epithelial cells are tightly packed, and there is little
intercellular material between them. Often they are
attached to one another by desmosomes. Consequently,
these cells provide effective protective barriers in such
structures as the outer layer of the skin and the inner
lining of the mouth . Other epithelial functions include
secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensory reception.
Connective tissues occur throughout the body and represent the most abundant type of tissue by weight. They
bind structures together, provide support and protection,
serve as frameworks, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood
cells, provide protection against infections, and help repair
tissue damage.
Connective tissue cells are usually further apart than
epithelial cells, and they have an abundance of intercellular
material, or matrix, between them. This matrix consists of
fibers and a ground substance whose consistency varies
from fluid to semisolid to solid.
Connective tissue cells are able to reproduce. In most
cases, they have good blood supplies and are well
nourished. Although some connective tissues, such as bone
and cartilage, are quite rigid, loose connective tissue,
45
adipose connective tissue, and fibrous connective tissue
are more flexible.
Muscle tissues are contractile; that is their elongated
cells, or muscle fibers, can change shape by becoming
shorter and thicker. As they contract, the muscle fibers
pull at their attached ends and cause body parts to move.
The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal muscle,
smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
Nerve tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The basic cells of this tissue are called
nerve cells, or neurons, and they are among the more
highly specialized body cells. Neurons are sensitive to
certain types of changes in their surroundings. They
respond by transmitting nerve impulses along cytoplasmic extensions to other neurons or to muscles or
glands.
As a result of the extremely complex patterns by
which neurons are connected with each other and with
various body parts, they are able to coordinate and regulate many body functions.
In addition to neurons, nerve tissue contains
neuroglial cells. These cells support and bind the
components of nerve tissue together, carry on
phagocytosis, and help supply nutrients to neurons by
connecting them to blood vessels.
Answer the questions:
1 What is a tissue?
2 List the four major types of tissue.
46
3 What are the general characteristics of epithelial tissue?
4 List the general characteristics of connective tissue.
5 What is matrix?
6 What are the three types of muscle tissue?
7 Describe the general characteristics of nerve tissue.
8 Distingwish between neurons and neuroglial cells.
47
Список літератури
1 Гурська А.І., Новосядла Є.Й. та ін. English for
Advanced Medical Students. – Львів: Світ. – 2003. – ст.
15-16, 24-26, 189-190
2 Лотовська Р.М., Гурська А.І., Сенів С.М.
Англійська мова для студентів - медиків. - К.: Вища
школа. – 1994. – ст. 235-236
3 Аврахова Л.Я., Павлушина Р.Х. Health Services in
the USA and Great Britain. - К.: НМУ. – 1999. – ст. 512
4 John W. Hole. Human Anatomy and Physiology. –
USA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers. – 1990. – ст. 65-100
5 Health. – Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing
Company. – 1990. – ст. 21-32
6 Health and Medical Annual. – Chicago: World Book
Inc. – 1995. – ст. 14-16
7 D. Ignatavicius, L. Workman, M. Mishler. Medical –
Surgical Nursing. – USA: W. B. Saunders Company. –
1995. – ст. 563-611
48
Міністерство освіти і науки України
Сумський державний університет
Методичні вказівки до практичних занять з
дисципліни «Англійська мова» / Укладач
І.М. ерлецькі.- Суми: Вид-во СумДУ, 2006. – 48c.
Кафедра іноземних мов
Методичні вказівки
до практичних занять
з дисципліни «Англійська мова»
в I семестрі
для студентів спеціальності 7.110101
денної форми навчання
Суми
Вид-во СумДУ
2006
Навчальне видання
Методичні вказівки
до практичних занять
з дисципліни « Англійська мова »
в І семестрі
для студентів спеціальності 7.110101
денної форми навчання
Укладач І.М. Терлецька
Комп’ютерне верстання В.О. Бойко
Редактор Н.О. Кравченко
Відповідальний за випуск Г.І. Литвинеко
Підп. до друку, поз.
Формат 60х84/16. Папір офс. Друк офс.
Ум. друк. арк..
Обл.-вид. арк.
Тираж 150 пр.
Собівартість вид.
Зам. №
Видавництво СумДУ при Сумському державному університеті
40007, Суми, вул. Р.-Корсакова,2
Свідоцтво про внесення суб’єкта видавничої справи до Державного реєстру
ДК № 2365 від 08.12.2005.
Надруковано у друкарні СумДУ
40007, Суми, вул. Р.-Корсакова,2.
МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ
СУМСЬКИЙ ДЕРЖАВНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ
До друку та в світ
дозволяю на підставі
«Єдиних правил»,
п.2.6.14
Заступник першого проректора –
начальник методично –
організаційного управління
В.Б. Юскаєв
Методичні вказівки
до практичних занять
з дисципліни « Англійська мова »
в І семестрі
для студентів спеціальності 7.110101
денної форми навчання
Усі цитати, цифровий,
фактичний матеріал,
бібліографічні
відомості перевірені,
написання одиниць
відповідає стандартам
Укладач
І.М. Терлецька
Відповідальний за випуск
Г.І. Литвинеко
Декан факультету
Л.П. Валенкевич
Суми
Вид-во СумДУ
2006