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Medicine. General Information Read and translate the following definitions: Medicine: Science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease. The word also refers to any drug used to treat an illness or injury. Physician or Doctor: Person trained and licensed to practice medicine; one who treats the entire body is a general practitioner (G.P.) . Surgery: medical specialty of cutting into, or performing operative procedures on the patient. A doctor who does this is a surgeon. Acupuncture: Method of curing illness or relieving pain by inserting needles into the body at certain points; originally developed by the Chinese. Epidemic: Contagious disease which spreads rapidly throughout large portions of the population. The bubonic plague is a famous example of an epidemic which ravaged Europe in the Middle Ages. Modem medical science has found means of preventing most epidemics. Skeleton: Bony framework of the body, including the spinal column, the rib cage, the skull, and the bones of the arms and legs. Anatomy: Science of the structure of organisms, including the human body; can be studied by dissecting, or cutting into organisms. Pharmacy: Store where medicines are sold, especially by prescription; also known as a drugstore or an apothecary. Licensed pharmacists prepare medications, selling certain 3 drugs only when they are prescribed by a physician. Disease: Pathological condition which causes abnormal body functions and presents certain symptoms or signs; can be caused by a germ, such as a bacterium or a virus. Drug: Substance used to treat illness. Antibiotics, such as penicillin and tetracycline, are familiar examples. Microscope: Instrument which uses a series of lenses to produce magnified images of objects too small to be seen well by the eye alone. Laboratory technicians use microscopes to analyze specimens of blood, urine, and tissue. Diagnosis: Identification of a disease or ailment after careful examination and analysis. A doctor always diagnoses the patient's ailment before treatment. Communicable disease: Disease m which the causative organism factor can be transmitted from one person to another, the common cold is the most familiar example. Family Practice: A certified primary care specialty emphasizing general medical care for the entire family. Biopsy: Portion of tissue removed from the living body by an operation and examined to aid in diagnosing a disease. X-ray: Form of radiation used to create photographic images of bones and internal organs and, in some cases, to treat them when they are diseased; overexposure can be dangerоus. Nurse: Person trained to care for the sick, infirm, or injured, often under the direction of a doctor. Patient: Person who is undergoing medical treatment for 4 sickness or injury. Health insurance: Form of protection against the high costs of health care. Payment of a premium guarantees medical coverage to the insured person. Hospital: Place where medical and surgical care is provided for sick and injured persons. First aid: Emergency medical treatment given when professional medical advice is not available. 1 Answer the given questions: 1 What is another name for a doctor? 2 What is the term for a sick or injured person under medical care? 3 What is the method of curing disease that was developed in China? 4 What term describes a disease that spreads widely and rapidly? 5 Define a skeleton. 6 What is the study of the structure of organisms called? 7 Give three names for a place to buy prescription drugs. 8 A doctor cannot cure an illness unless he has made a diagnosis. What is it? 9 Name one familiar communicable disease. Do you know others? 10 How can x-rays help doctors make more accurate diagnoses? 11 What does a nurse do? 12 What is a patient? 13 What is the purpose of health insurance? 14 What is a hospital used for? 15 What is a disease? 16 What is an antibiotic? Name some. 17 Who uses a microscope? What can it do? 18 When is a first aid given? 19 Explain the term medicine. 20 Name the medical specialty that involves operations. 5 2 Translate the following words and phrases in written form: лікар; лікувати; хірургія; процедура; хворий; заразна хвороба; чума; різати; попередження хвороби; аптека; прописувати (ліки); мікроб; речовина; наука; діагностика; лікування; пошкодження; голка; скелет; кістка; череп; рентген; ребро; застуда; хребет; нездоров′я; внутрішні органи; лікування; медична сестра; зразки крові, сечі, тканини; дати професійну пораду; перша допомога; небезпечний; страхування. Supplementary reading. First aid. What shoud I do? 1 - What should I do if someone's clothes catch fire? - First of all, put out the fire by wrapping the victim in a coat or blanket, by turning him over on the ground in dirt or sand, or by putting water over him. Next, check to see if the person is breathing and his heart is beating. Then, call or ask someone to call an ambulance. 2 - What should I tell the person who answers the phone about the burn victim? - First, say that someone has been burned. Tell the person that the victim is breathing and that you can feel a pulse. Next, give your name and the exact location where the ambulance should go. Include the address, building 6 and room or apartment number. Stay calm and answer all questions. 3 - What should I do if a person stops breathing? - First, turn the person on his back. Then lift his head back, open his mouth, and be certain that his tongue has not fallen in his throat. Next, squeeze his nose closed and cover his mouth with your mouth. Breathe into his mouth until his chest raises up. Blow into his mouth three times; then check to see if he is exhaling. Change the position of his head if no air comes out and try again. Blow into his mouth about 12 times a minute. Don't stop this procedure until the victim can breathe by himself or an ambulance arrives. 4 - What should I do if the person's heart stops beating? - Place both your hands on the victim's chest and apply firm pressure, then release. Again apply pressure and release. Work with a continuous sequence of pressure and release until the heart starts to beat again. 5 - What should I do for giving first aid for a broken ankle? - First you make the injured person comfortable and carefully take off his shoe or boot. Don't twist the ankle during this procedure. Second, bend a magazine or newspaper into a U shape. Place the magazine or newspaper under the foot and along the sides of the injured ankle. Third, tie the magazine or newspaper around the lower leg with a long narrow piece of cloth or nylon stocking to make a firm support around the ankle. Do not allow the accident victim try to walk on a broken ankie. 7 Carry him to the doctor. Read the text, after you have read it: indentify and describe how your bones, muscles, skin, and nervous system help keep you healthy discuss how body parts work for digestion, circulation, and respiration. The Human Body The human body is like a wonderful machine. However, no machine can do the things your body can do. All body parts work together to help keep you healthy. Your body has more than 200 bones. It also has more than 600 muscles. Bones and muscles give your body support. As a result, you walk, sit, and stand. These actions are also under the control of your nervous system. Body Parts A cell is the smallest living part of your body. Cells have different shapes and sizes. Each kind of cell has a different job to do. Brain cells do one job while skin cells do another job. Cells in parts of your body form tissues. A tissue is a group of cells that work together to do a special job. All body parts are made of tissues. Bone and muscle are 8 types of tissues. An organ is a body part made of different kinds of tissues. Your eye is an organ. Your heart is an organ. What other body organs can you name? Organs in your body form a body system. A body system is a group of organs that work together to do a certain job. Your lungs and air passages are part of a body system. Bones Bones form a frame that supports your body. They are also place of attachment for muscles. The bony frame in your body is called a skeleton. Bones of the skeleton protect many of your body organs. Skull bones protect your brain. Ribs protect your heart and lungs. Your back bones protect your spinal cord. Blood cells are made inside the long bones in your body. These bones contain marrow. Bone marrow is soft tissue in the center of long bones. Bones are joined to other bones. A joint is the place where two bones meet. Joints allow your body to move in certain ways. The joint at your knee allows you to bend your leg. Joints in your hand allow you to bend your fingers. Joints in your back allow you to bend at the waist. Muscles Muscles are a type of tissue that helps your body in many ways. All muscles in the body are a part of the muscular system. 9 Muscles help you do many tasks. You can control muscles that help you walk, run, and talk. However, you cannot control other muscles, such as your heart muscle. Your heart muscle pumps blood throughout your body. Muscles around your ribs help you breathe. Muscles in your stomach help to digest food. Many muscles work in pairs. When one muscle contracts, the other one relaxes. To contract means to become smaller. When a muscle contracts, it becomes shorter and thicker. The two ends of the muscle come closer together. When a muscle contracts, it pulls on the bone to which it is attached. This will cause the bone to move. When a muscle relaxes, it stretches and becomes longer. Skin Skin is the largest organ in the body. Skin helps control body temperature. When the body is warm, water is lost through the skin in the form of sweat. As water is lost, heat escapes from the body. Sweating helps keep the body cool. When the body is cool, less heat is lost through the skin. This helps keep the body warm. Skin helps protect the body against germs. Broken skin lets germs enter the body. It is important to wash broken skin to get rid of dirt and germs. Skin on all parts of your body is made of two layers of tissue. Each layer is made of special cells. 10 Nerves and Sense Organs The human body contains millions of neurons. Neurons are nerve cells that help control body activities. They are a part of the nervous system. The brain is a mass of neurons found within the skull. There are billions of neurons in the brain. The spinal cord is a long column of neurons. It extends down the back from the base of the brain. Neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and throughout the body form a network. This network carries messages between the brain and the entire body to help the body work. Sense organs are also part of the nervous system. The five senses are seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling Messages travel through neurons from the sense organs to the brain. For example, messages from the tongue travel to the brain. This lets you know the taste of foods. Your senses help protect your health. Your sense of hearing warns you when a car is coming. Your sense of smell can warn you of smoke from a fire. How can your other senses protect you? Energy and Transport Certain parts of a car work together to help the car use energy. The energy moves throughout the engine to move the car. Other parts work together to help get rid of wastes from the car. In much the same way, your body needs energy to work. Some body systems help you use energy. 11 Others help get rid of body wastes. Digestion The food you eat is not in a form your body cells can use. It must be changed to supply your body with energy. All cells need energy in order to function. Digestion is the process of changing food in your body. The food is changed into materials that can enter your bloodstream. Your blood carries these digested food materials to a body cells. Within the cells, oxygen combines with these food materials. This causes energy to be released. This energy is used to help your body do many things. Circulation The heart is a muscle that pumps blood. It is the main organ of circulation. Circulation is the transport of blood throughout your body. Blood flows throughout your body in blood vessels. The heart and blood vessels make up your circulatory system. There are three kinds of blood vessels. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from your heart. Most arteries carry oxygen and digested food to cells in your body. Capillaries are very small blood vessels that connect arteries to veins. Veins are blood vessels that return blood to your heart. Respiration Without oxygen, body cells can live only a few 12 minutes. The air you breathe contains oxygen. Your body gets oxygen when you inhale. This happens through a process called respiration. Respiration is the exchange of gases within the body. The circulatory system helps with respiration. Your blood picks up oxygen from your lungs. In this way, oxygen is carried throughout your body. As your body cells use oxygen, a waste gas called carbon dioxide is produced. Carbon dioxide is carried in veins back to your heart and then back to your lungs. Carbon dioxide is removed from your lungs when you exhale. The respiratory system helps keep you healthy. When you inhale, air is warmed by blood vessels inside your nose. Mucus inside your nose traps dirt that may be in the air. Mucus is a liquid that moistens and protects some body parts. Your nose and throat contain mucus. Sneezing helps your body get rid of dirt and mucus trapped in the airway. All body systems work together. You can take actions to protect them and keep them healthy. Protect your respiratory system. Do not smoke. Smoking harms your lungs. It is a leading cause of lung cancer. 1 Learn the following life skills: Help keep your bones strong by eating dairy products and by exercising. Wash all cuts to keep germs from entering your body. Get plenty of sleep and rest to keep your nervous 13 system healthy. Eat fruits and vegetables for healthy digestion. Help keep your respiratory system healthy by not smoking. 2 Put a special question to the italicized words: 1 The body is made up of cells, tissues, organs, and systems. 2 Bones give the body support and help protect some body organs. 3 Many different kinds of muscles help the body move. 4 The skin helps control body temperature and keep germs from entering the body. 5 Nerves and sense organs help the body respond to its environment. 6 The digestive system helps the body use food. 7 Blood moves through the body in arteries, capillaries, and veins. 8 The respiratory system helps the cells in the body exchange gases. 3 Complete each sentence with the correct word: bone marrow joint respiration capillaries mucus skeleton circulation neuron tissue digestion organ veins 14 1 A___is a part of the body where two bones meet. 2 The heart is an example of an__ . 3 The process of changing food in the body is called__ . 4 The___is a bony frame that supports the body. 5 ___is the soft tissue in the center of long bones. 6 ___are nerve cells. 7 The heart is the main organ of___ . 8 Breaching is a part of____ . 9 Different kinds of cells work together to foi type of___ 10 Small blood vessels that connect arteries to are called___ . 4 Answer the questions: 1 How do cells and tissues differ? 2 How are bones important to your health? 3 How can you help keep your bones healthy? 4 How does your heart muscle keep you alive? 5 How does your skin help keep you healthy? 6 Why should you wash your skin if you get a cut? 7 How can a sense organ help protect you? 8 What is the purpose of digestion in the body? 9 How are arteries and veins different? 10 How does your respiratory system help keep you healthy? 5 Use the life skills from this chapter to respond to the following questions: 15 Situation: You have just learned about ways to keep your bones strong. You are in the cafeteria line at university. You have a choice of milk, chocolate cake, cheese, potato chips, soda pop, and yogurt. 1 What foods would you choose for healthy bones? 2 What other foods might keep your bones healthy? 6 Think about it: 1 Why is the heart considered an organ? 2 Why is calcium important to the body? 3 Why does food need to be digested? 4 Why are arteries important? 5 What can you do to lower your risks of developing lung cancer? 7 Describe two ways each of your sense organs help keep you healthy. Ask others for ways they believe their sense organs help them stay healthy. Health Service in Ukraine The main principle of our Health Service is to prevent diseases, to strengthen the health of the people and to increase their longevity. The Health Network of Ukraine comprises a great number of hospitals, policlinics, out-patient departments and research institutes. 16 In Ukraine there are large centres of cardiology, surgery, oncology, ophthalmology, the First Aid Stations where many people are examined and treated. New medical institutions are built and equipped with modern medical apparatuses and devices. We have different sanatoria and rest-homes where a lot of our people rest and take the course of treatment. Many of them get sanatorium accomodation free of charge or pay only 10 per cent of the total cost of the voucher. Much attention is paid to the health protection of mother and child. Mothers are given maternity leaves and paid leaves until the baby is three years old. The mother's job is reserved during the definite period. We have maternity homes, nurseries, kindergartens and special hospitals. There are rest-homes and sanatoria for mothers and children too. At present many sanatoria and resthomes are presented to the mothers and children suffered from Chornobyl tragedy. Many of them have the treatment and rest in other countries. As for medical personnel much attention is paid to the training of doctors, nurses, obstetricians and others as they must take care about the health of our people. Answer the following questions: 1. What is the main principle of our Health Service? 2. What medical institutions does the Health Network of Ukraine comprise? 3. Are there large centres of 17 cardiology, surgery, oncology and others in Ukraine? 4.Are new medical institutions built? 5. Where do a lot of our people rest and take the course of treatment? 6. Is much attention paid to the health protection of mother and child? 7. What medical institutions do we have for mothers and children? 8. Whom are many sanatoria and rest-homes presented to? 9. Is much attention paid to the training of medical personnel? Health Care System in the USA Health care in the USA is organized in three levels: family doctor, the medical institution or hospital and the USA Public Health Service. A private doctor, they call him a family doctor, gives his patients regular examinations and inoculations. In case professional service and care is needed the family doctor arranges for the specialist or a hospital for his patient. The family doctor receives pay directly from the patient. A family doctor either has its own private office or works with several other doctors in the so-called group practice. Many Americans have no family doctor and they come directly to hospital for all their medical needs. The hospital provides health care to the sick and injured. They have government-financed and propriety hospitals. The patients are admitted to hospitals or clinics staffed by consulting physicians, residents, interns and 18 highly skilled nurses. In some hospitals pastoral care is available, and pastors visit their parishioners at any time. Most hospitals have at least the following major medical departments and units: surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology, pediatrics and general medicine. They may also have trauma and intensive care unit, neurosurgical, renal care unit and psychiatric unit. Emergency units are very special areas in the hospital. The Emergency patients acquire immediate attention. The Public Health Service in the USA is the leading agency in the policy to supply knowledge, facilities and professionals to the health sector. The United States have the most expensive health care system in the world in dollars per capita and fraction of Gross National Product. The dynamics of health care system drives them to use more and more services that are more and more sophisticated and more and more costly. As a result, the annual rate of increase of health care expenditures seriously challenges the financial capability of the United States. We must not forget about the high cost of medical care in the USA. Most of the population have private health insurance. Approximately 75 per cent of the population have their health insurance, life insurance, disability protection and retirement benefits at their place of employment. Most employers and their families now pay more than 50 per cent of the cost of health insurance. The great cost of medical care in the country and a great number of people who could not pay for it had forced the federal 19 government to develop two programs-Medicaid and Medicare. Medicaid, started in 1966, is a federal-state program, providing free medical care for the poor and aged, for the blind and dependent children. Medicare, started in 1967, is a federal program providing free medical care for aged Americans over 65, those, who in the past had the greatest medical expenses. The chief scientific problems facing American medicine are the same as those facing the Ukrainian medicine, they are heart diseases and cancer. The chief causes of suffering and death today are cancer and diseases of the heart and blood vessels, including hypertension, stroke and atherosclerosis. Also of major importance in America are illnesses of aging and disabilities caused by arthritis, mental diseases, drug addiction and genetic problems. Americans must seek new knowledge about the causes and cure of these diseases. 1 Answer the following questions. 1 In what levels is health care in the USA organized? 2 What does each level provide? 3 Is health care system in the USA expensive or cheap? 4 What forced the federal government to develop such programs as Medicaid and Medicare? 5 What are the chief causes of suffering and death in the USA today? 2 Answer your friend's questions. Use in your answers words and word combinations given in brackets (work in 20 pairs). 1 What kinds of hospitals are there in America? (government-financed, private hospitals). 2 What is the stuff of hospitals or clinics in America? (consulting physicians, residents, interns, highly skilled nurses, pastoral care). 3 What departments are there at American hospitals? (surgery, obstetrics and gynaecology, pediatrics, general medicine, neurosurgery, a renal care unit, a psychiatric unit, an emergency unit). 4 What is Medicaid? (a federal state program, to provide free medical care, the poor, the blind, dependent children). 5 What is Medicare? (a federal program, a health insurance program, the elderly and disabled, to provide free medical care, aged Americans). National Health Service in Great Britain The main organ of Health Service in Great Britain is the National Health Service. The National Health Service Act was passed through parliament in 1946 and in 1948 this Act received the Royal Assent and was brought into operation. The N.H.S. consists of three parts: the Local Health Authorities, the General Practitioners and Hospitals or Specialist Services. The Local Health Authority has an obligation to 21 make arrangements with the General Practitioners for the vaccination of those who live within its area. The Hospitals and Specialist Services have definite interrelations too. The role of the family doctor is very important in the Health Service. Not all patients need highly specialized attention and the GP does invaluable work by filtering off 90 per cent of the total medical work Most medical treatment in Great Britain is free but charges are made for drugs, spectacles and dental care. Free emergency medical treatment is given to any visitor from abroad who becomes ill while staying in the country. But those who come to England specially for treatment must pay for it. The National Health Service provides free medical treatment both in hospital and outside. People may use the N.H.S. and they may go to doctors as private patients. Many people who have enough money prefer to be private patients because they think that they can in that way establish more personal relations with the doctor or because they do not want to be put in a large room with other patients. The patient in England can choose between the N.H.S. and private treatment at any time. Moreover he can take one part with the service, the other privately. If a patient is dissatisfied with his N.H.S. family doctor or dentist, he may change to another one. In fact, 97% of the population use the N.H.S. This freedom of choice applies to doctors and dentists too. All doctors may take part in the Family Doctor System and most of them do so. This service is free to 22 everyone. They can choose whether they want to join the N.H.S. or not and if they can have N.H.S. and private patients. Physicians may have private practice receiving the pay directly from the patients for their medical advice. N.H.S. doctors are paid by the Government, the pay depending on the number of the patients they have served every month. The hospital service includes general and special hospitals, tuberculosis sanatoria, infectious disease units, and all forms of specialized treatment together with the provision of most surgical and medical needs. Besides the hospitals there are infirmatories and nursing homes. An infirmatory is a room in an institution used for sick people. A nursing home is usually a "private small hospital for the patients and aged people. In fact, half of the hospitals are over 100 years old. They were built in the nineteenth century, they are small with about 200 beds. Such hospitals are uneconomic and cannot provide a full range of services, which require a district hospital of 800 beds or more. Now they have more than 150 health centres in the U.K. Health centres provide opportunities for hospital specialists and GPs. Health centres contain all the special diagnostic and therapeutic services which family doctors need, such as electrocardiography, X-ray, physiotherapy, etc. Family doctors have access to hospital resources and can be brought into close relationship with hospital doctors. Health centres are the bases of primary care. There are centres, which provide consultant services in general medicine and surgery, ear-nose-throat diseases, 23 obstetrics and gynaecology, ophthalmology, psychiatry and orthopaedics. All consultations in the centres are by appointment only. The patient is given a definite time at which to attend. Each doctor decides for himself how many patients he can examine for an hour. It must be born in mind that the patient is the most important person in the health centre and all the energies of the medical personnel are directed to helping him as much as possible. 1 Answer the following questions: 1 When was the N.H.S. brought into operation? 2 What parts does the National Health Service consist of? 3 Are there any interrelations between these parts? 4 Are there private patients in Great Britain? 2 Arrange the following expressions according to the contents (keep to a logical consistency) a) Types of hospitals in the U.K. b) The interrelations between the three parts of the N.H.S. c) Freedom of choice applied to doctors and dentists. d) The N.H.S. and its structure. e) Problems of British health care system. f) Freedom of choice of medical treatment. g) Health centres in the U.K. 3 Summarize the text using the headings organized by you in a logical consistency. 24 Pharmacology Pharmacology may be defined most simply as the study of drugs. In the broadest sense it includes all the scientific knowledge of drugs, such as the name, source, physical and chemical properties, and the mixing or preparing of drugs in the form of medicine. It is concerned also with physiological actions of drugs - their absorption, action, and fate in the body - and with their therapeutic uses, as well as the poisonous effects that result from over dosage. A drug is a chemical substance that affects living protoplasm and does not act as a food. It is used in the cure, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or animals. In addition, drugs alleviate suffering and pain. The subject of pharmacology may be divided into a number of distinct sciences such as pharmacognosy, pharmacy, posology, toxicology, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacotherapeutics. Pharmacognosy is a descriptive science and is concerned with the recognition, quality, purity by macroscopic and microscopic means, and identification of plants and animal drugs. Pharmacy deals with the preparation, stability, preservation, and storage of drugs. From these drugs the pharmacist prepares compounds, and dispenses medicines. Most drugs are prepared by pharmaceutical manufacturers and are distributed to the pharmacy or hospital in such suitable dosage forms as tablets, capsules, liquid 25 preparations, or sterile solutions for injection. The pharmacist now has no less a responsible role in properly dispensing the preparations in finished forms than when he powdered, dissolved, mixed, and otherwise compounded prescriptions. He stiff performs these functions for many of these orders. Posology is concerned with the dosage or amount of a drug given in the treatment of disease. There is a minimum, maximum, usual or therapeutic, and toxic dose for each drug. The most important is the usual dose, which is the oral dose for an adult weighing 70 kg. There are a number of conditions thai modify the dose of a drug. Pharmacodynamics is concerned with the response of Jiving tissues to chemical stimuli, that is, the action of drugs on the living organism in the absence of disease. It is one of the newest biological sciences and is closely associated with physiology, biochemistry, pathology, and microbiology. It is unique in that its interest is focused on drugs. It is a study of the absorption, fate, excretion, and action of a foreign substance in the body. Purpose of Pharmacology The purpose of pharmacology as a pure science is to determine the response of living tissues to chemical stimuli, chiefly drugs or prospective drugs on living tissues of the body in the absence of disease, as, for example, in inducing sleep or exciting to retard sleep. It also attempts to correlate chemical structure with response and to classify chemically related drugs into groups such as the 26 barbiturates and the sulfonamides. As an applied or practical science, it has the following functions: 1) to test drugs quantitatively and standardize them so that they are available to the doctor and patient in a uniform and dependable form; 2) to determine how drugs produce their effects on the animal body, and 3) to develop new drugs. Answer the following questions: 1 What is Pharmacology? 2 What is the definition of Pharmacology as a science? 3 Is Pharmacology concerned with therapeutic use of drugs? 4 What do drugs affect? 5 What are the drugs used in? 6 What branches of Pharmacology do you know? 7 What is the purpose of Pharmacognosy? 8 What does Pharmacy deal with? 9 Who prepares medicines? 10 Who is responsible in properly dispensing of medicines? 11 What is the scope of Posology? 12 What may the overdosage of drugs cause? 13 How do you understand the words "usual dose"? 14 What does Pharmacodynamics deal with? 15 What is the purpose of Pharmacology as an applied science? 16 What are the functions of Pharmacology as a pure science? Supplementary reading. Drugs Used as Medicines There are two kinds of drugs used as medicines. One 27 kind is called over-the-counter drugs. An over-thecounter (OTC) drug is a drug that can be bought without a doctor's written order. OTC drugs can help people who have mild health problems. OTC drugs can help stop a cough or relieve a headache. However, OTC drugs can be harmful. Harm may result if they are not used correctly. The labels on these drug containers give important information. They tell how much of the drug to take. They tell how often the drug is to be used. Over-the-counter drug labels also have warnings. A warning is a statement telling you that the drug may not be right for you. It tells when you should not take the drug. A warning may tell you to contact a doctor if an illness continues for a long time. The second kind of drug used as medicine is a prescription drug. A prescription drug is a drug ordered in writing by a doctor. The doctor writes the prescription for one specific person. The kind of health problem that needs treatment must be considered. The doctor must also consider the person's weight and height. A drug that is right for one person may not be right for another. OTS and prescription drugs can cause side effects. A side effect is an unwanted body change caused by a drug. A headache or an upset stomach are examples of side effects. Medicine labels have warnings about possible side effects. Stop taking any medicine if you have a side effect. Ask the doctor who ordered the drug. The doctor may then prescribe a different kind of drug. 28 World Health Organization The World Health Organization is one of a number of intergovernmental agencies which work in close relationship with each other and with the UN to which they are affiliated. Thus, by definition, and in line with the UN Charter, the World Health Organization (WHO) is the world's agency for international cooperation in improving the physical and menial health of all. It helps member nations in launching campaigns to stamp out mass diseases, coordinates efforts to prevent the spread of epidemics, trains health workers at all levels, and promotes international medical research. The idea of having an international body to deal with problems of world health dates back to 1943, the year that saw the setting up of the United Nations as such. Already at that time, the founding members unanimously agreed that an "International health organization" should be set up. As a result, the Interim Commission of the World Health Organization came into being the following year and, on April 7, 1948, the permanent organization was formally constituted. WHO has its headquarters in Geneva. Switzerland, and its policies are agreed upon of the annual meetings of the World Health Assembly. WHO has achieved an impressive record in pursuing its main aim, especially in The battle against some of the world's most virulent diseases. Its most remarkable success has been the campaign against smallpox and malaria, the 29 former now completely eradicated from the earth. Malaria has been eliminated or brought under control in many countries where n once spread debilitation and death. Intensive campaigns are being waged against yellow fever, tuberculosis and leprosy. WHO is helping a total of more than twenty countries to fight trachoma, a preventable eye disease, which is known to have brought blindness to two million people. It has played a part of honour in the development and testing of poliomyelitis and measles vaccines, and it has kept a watch on cholera, plague, yellow fever, influenza and rabies to give a timely warning lo national health authorities. In recent years, the emphasis has shifted to the long-term tasks of building tip permanent health services and improving environmental conditions to eliminate the causes of diseases, build up resistance and maintain the progress won. In other words, the stress is more on prevention than on cure, The World Health Organization now gives extensive support to doctors' training, nursing services to mothers and children, family planning as a means of improving family health, water supply and waste disposal systems and lo health laboratories. More than ever before, WHO's efforts are aimed at environmental control on an international scale. WHO has a great task ahead of it coordinating the worldwide campaign against AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Cholera, thought to be under control in most 30 countries, suddenly spread and invaded areas where it had not been seen for fifty years. Insects began developing resistance to insecticides, thus foiling disease control programmer. In spite of all this, WHO stands out as an indispensable international health effort-coordinating centre. There is good enough reason to celebrate the World Health Organization's anniversary on April 7-th as World Health Day. 1 Answer the following questions: 1 When was WHO founded and why? 2 What has been WHO’s part in the vaccination and inoculation campaigns? 3 What are the present-day objectives pursued by WHO? 4 Why are insects resistant to insecticides? 5 What about the case of cholera? 6 Why is WHO increasingly concerned with environmental problems? 7 Is WHO concerned with mental as well as physical health? 8 Where are the headquarters of WHO? 9 Do failures of any kind affect the image of WHO as a whole? 10 What is the significance of April 7th? 2 Write a plan of the text. Supplementary reading. World Health Organization. Definition of Health As sciense has progressed, the definition of health has evolved. One of the most frequently quoted definitions is the one presented in 1947 by the World Health Organization (WHO). WHO states that health is “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 1947, p. 1). Thus, according to WHO, to be healthy, a person must be in a state of well-being physically, mentally, and socially. Health professionals have found this concept problematic because achieving a state of “health” seems to be an unrealistic goal. This definition does not allow for degrees of health or illness, and it fails to reflect the dynamic, ever-changing nature of health. A concept related to health is homeostasis, or internal equilibrium or balance. When a person experiences a disturbance in homeostasis, he or she is considered to be “unhealthy”. Like the WHO definition of health, this concept is losing popularity because “stasis” implies an unchanging state and most theorists today believe that health is always changing. 3 Now that you have read the text, answered the questions and written your plan, render the text. 31 32 Make a report about the health state of an individual, using the given scheme: Support Genetic Cognitive systems influence abilities Previous health experiences Health beliefs/ practices Age Health state of an individual Standart of living Religion Sex Environment/ life style Culture Geographic location Outpatient Treatment Patients in need of medical treatment usually go to see their family doctor in his consulting room or surgery. As a rule, they have to wait in the waiting room until their turn comes. In order to make the patient's diagnosis, the GP must first learn about the common symptoms, the subjective manifestations of the patient's chief complaint. He will 33 want to know if the patient is running a temperature, and if so, he will take it or ask the patient to take it, using a thermometer. Apart from attacks of fever, the most common symptoms include: sweating, general body ache, headache, muscle or joint ache, malaise, nausea, diarrhoea, constipation and breathlessness. The patient may also complain of sore throat, cough, giddiness, weakness, tremor and pain. On examination (0/E in clinical notes), the doctor may find rash, swelling, distention or tumour. These belong among objective findings called signs which also include the results of routine laboratory examinations of the blood, sputum, urine and stools and possibly the cerebrospinal fluid, too. In order to obtain a clear clinical picture, the doctor may want to have the patient X-rayed, or to have him undergo an ECG (electrocardiographic) or EEG (electroencephalographic) investigation. He may want to have his gastric juices analyzed, bronchoscopy, proctoscopy, cystoscopy etc. performed. In his surgery, the GP is much more likely to use, first of all, the four classical methods of: inspection - to ascertain visible signs of the patient's condition; thus for instance, the appearance of the patient's tongue (furred, florid or pale, moist or dry or glazed as in fever) is a valuable sign; palpation - to feel tumour, swelling, distention, the presence of tenderness, etc; 34 percussion - by tapping the chest or other parts of !he body and listening to the quality of the note, whether resonant or dull, impaired, and so on; auscultation - to hear chest sounds, irregularity of heart beat, peristaltic sounds in ihe abdominal cavity, etc. In the course of the examination in his surgery, the doctor makes use of his stethoscope, speculum, magnifying glass and other aids, to make the diagnosis as accurate as possible. In examining the patient, the doctor proceeds, as a rule, from the top of the head down the neck, to the chest and abdomen, and finally to the extremities. This - together with the patient's past history and family history - helps to establish a reliable diagnosis and to determine the kind of treatment. Then, the GP is in a position to write out a prescription to recommend bed rest or hospitalization, to invite the patient for interview or, if necessary, to refer him to a specialist. Answer the following questions: 1 Where do people usually go if they need medical treatment? 2 What must the GP do first to establish a reliable diagnosis? 3 What do patients most commonly complain of? 4 What is usually the subject of routine laboratory investigation? 5 What are the four classical methods of examining a patient? 35 6 What is the aim of palpation (percussion, auscultation)? 7 What helps a doctor to make a diagnosis? Supplementary reading. General Practitioner Britain has a two-tier system of medical care. A person who is ill goes first to a primary care physician or general practitioner. The general practitioner treats most problems himself, and refers patients with unusual or serious illnesses to specialists for secondary care. The two-tier system has several advantages. Primary care is a cheap and accessible way of treating minor illnesses. The patient can consult the same doctor for almost all illnesses. Specialists do not waste their time on simple problems. In serious illness the general practitioner helps the patient to find the most appropriate specialist. General practice is the "gateway" to specialist health care. But it is also becoming a specialty in its own right. In Britain 99 percent of the population is registered with a general practitioner. Two-thirds of the population visit a general practitioner every year and 98 percent do so at least once every five years. The general practitioner can therefore offer preventive medicine and health education to almost everyone in the community. In the past the general practitioner dealt only with "presenting complaints", that is, the symptoms and anxieties which 36 patients brought along to the doctor. This is called reactive medicine, where the doctor does nothing until the patient has noticed that something is wrong. Modern general practice involves pro-active medicine, where the doctor makes contact with healthy people and offers medical care to people who have not asked for it. An example of proactive medicine is cervical cancer screening. Advice from a general practitioner to stop smoking is the most cost-effective health policy in the developed world. Many general practitioners now organize "lifestyle" clinics, where patients can come for advice about smoking, diet, alcohol, exercise or stress reduction. Perhaps the most important skill in general practice is communication. Even when a patient has seen a specialist, it is the general practitioner who explains the diagnosis to the patient and supervises the treatment of the illness. If the patient does not understand the problem, or if he finds the treatment painful or tedious, he may not follow the doctor's advice. It is important to involve the patient in his own care. The days of "doctor's orders" are gone. Some old-fashioned general practitioners do not like this new system, in which the patient often knows as much about his illness as the doctor, but many general practitioners find it both challenging and rewarding. The general practitioner is also known as the family doctor. He provides primary care for patients "from the cradle to grave". If one member of a family has a serious illness, the general practitioner can give support and advice to the rest of the family. If necessary, the general 37 practitioner visits the patient at home. This unique relationship is often envied by other countries. Some specialists still think of general practice as a low-status and uninteresting branch of medicine. They think that the general practitioner does little more than give out aspirin and weigh babies. But good general practice demands a wide range of skills The general practitioner should know a little about every branch of medicine, and know when to ask a specialist for advice. To many people in the community, the general practitioner is "my doctor" - healer, adviser, helper and friend. He must also be a manager, an accountant and an administrator. Of all doctors, the general practitioner enjoys the greatest variety of medical problems, the most satisfying doctor -patient relationships, and the greatest potential for improving the health of an entire community. Inpatient Treatment The general practitioner refers a patient to the hospital in case his state is too serious to be coped with in the polyclinic. Emergencies are taken to the hospital even without the family doctor's recommendation. List patients are normally admitted straight to the department or ward concerned. On admission the patient's history is taken as part 38 of the clinical case-taking. This includes complete physical examination and laboratory studies, the systematic classification of the common symptoms and signs as well as compilation of the patient's case record (clinical notes). Apart from the patient's personal data (name - both Christian and surname, address, age, social status, occupation etc.) the case record should contain the date of admission and discharge, the historian's name and diagnosis. The basic component unit of the inpatient department is called the ward where palienis are admitted for treatment. A ward unit consists of rooms for patients, a treatment room, sisters' room, bathrooms and lavatories. In charge of each ward is the ward sister. The duties of the nursing staff include dressing wounds, giving out medicines, taking the temperature, managing transfusions, conducting certain investigations and. in general, carrying out medical orders. The patients are seen daily by the medical staff, usually during the morning ward round. Most of the operations are also performed during the morning; the place is the operating theatre with the surgeon being assisted - among other staff- by the instrumental sister and theatre sister. Some large hospitals include an accident unit, an intensive care unit, a chest surgery unit, a head injuries unit, plastic surgery and burns units, a rehabilitation department, a department of physiotherapy, a blood transfusion department, and other special purpose units. 39 Answer the questions: 1 In what case does the GP refer a patient to the hospital? 2 What does clinical case-taking involve? 3 What is a ward? 4 What does a ward unit consist of? 5 What does the term “morning round” mean? 6 What units do the large hospitals include? Cells The human body is composed entirely of cells, the products of cells, and various fluids. These cells represent the basic structural units of the body; they are the building blocks from which all larger parts are formed. They are also the functional units, because whatever a body part can do is the result of activities within its cells. Cells account for the shape, organization, and construction of the body and carry on its life processes. In addition, they can reproduce and thus provide the new cells needed for growth, development, and the replacement of worn and injured tissues. A human cell is made of two main components: the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nucleus contains DNA and is responsible for giving the cell instructions and passing on hereditary information. Cytoplasm contains 40 the nucleus and makes up the body of the cell. It is responsible for movement, protein production, and converting substances into chemical energy. Nucleus The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by two membranes known as the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which store the hereditary information responsible for cell growth and reproduction. This information is divided into 46 chromosomes. Enzymes in the nucleus copy parts of the DNA into strands of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Each segment of a chromosome used to produce a strand of RNA is known as a gene. Some types of RNA (messenger) are used to produce new copies of DNA. Other types (ribosomal) enter the cytoplasm through the nucleic membrane. There they form protein-RNA structures known as ribosomes, used as blueprints for producing molecules that fuel and organize cell activity. Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is contained inside the plasma membrane. Nutrients and waste materials pass through this membrane by slowly dissolving through or by way of channels formed out of proteins. Similar internal membranes distinguish organelles, compartments in the cell that specialize in a particular function, from the cytoplasm. Ribosomes and organelles inhabit the cytoplasm as separate membrane-bordered chemical and molecular environments. Ribosomes. Free-floating ribosomes use proteins to 41 make enzymes, structural supports, and elements used for movement. Other ribosomes attached to a cluster of flattened, membranous sacs (endoplasmic reticulum) build proteins that are stored, used in membranes, or relapsed from the cell altogether. The Golgi complex, another system of sacs, modifies proteins made in the endoplasmic reticulum. Some Types of Organelles. The mitochondrion produces most of the chemical energy needed by the cell. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids provide fuel for reactions inside the mitochondria that release energy to spur cell growth and development. The lysosome contains the cell's digestive enzymes. Substances engulfed by the cell may be directed to a lysosome for digestion. In case of disease or as part of cell division, lysosomes may release their enzymes into the cytoplasm, killing the cell. Microrubules and microfilaments are used for cell locomotion. They also form the cytoskeleton, an internal structure that supports the cell. Answer the questions: 1 Name the two major parts of a cell. 2 What are the general functions of these two parts? 3 Give an example to illustrate that the shape of a cell is related to its function. 4 What is the function of the Golgi complex? 5 Why are mitochondria sometimes called the “powerhouses of cells”? 42 6 Describe the functions of microfilaments and microtubules. Read and translate the following sentences: Active transport: a) Active transport is responsible for movement of molecules or ions from regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration. b) It requires cellular energy and involves action of carrier molecules in the cell membrane. Endocytosis: a) Pinocytosis is a process by which a cell membrane engulfs tiny droplets of liquid. b) Phagocytosis is a process by which a cell membrane engulfs solid particles. c) Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a process by which receptor proteins combine with specific kinds of molecules in the cell surroundings, and the combinations are engulfed. Life Cycle of a Cell: 1 The life cycle of a cell includes mitosis, cytoplasmic division, interphase, and differentiation. 2 Mitosis: a) Mitosis is the division and distribution of nuclear parts to daughter cells during cell reproduction. b) The stages of mitosis include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. 3 Citoplasmic division is a process by which cytoplasm 43 is divided into two portions following mitosis. 4 Interphase: a) Interphase is the stage in the life cycle when a cell grows and forms new organelles. b) It terminates when the cell begins to undergo mitosis. 5 Cell differentiation involves the development of specialized structures and functions. Tissues Cells, the basic units of structure and function within the human organism, are organized into groups and layers called tissues. Each type of tissue is composed of similar cells that are specialized to carry on particular functions. For example, epithelial tissues form protective coverings and function in secretion and absorption; connective tissues provide support for softer body parts and bind structures together; muscle tissues are responsible for producing body movements; and nerve tissue is specialized to conduct impulses that help control and coordinate body activities. Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They cover all body surfaces—inside and out—and are the major tissues of glands. Since epithelium covers organs, forms the inner 44 lining of body cavities, and lines hollow organs, it always has a free surface—one that is exposed to the outside or to an open space internally. As a rule, epithelial tissues lack blood vessels. However, they are nourished by substances that diffuse from underlying connective tissues, which are well supplied with blood vessels. Epithelial cells are tightly packed, and there is little intercellular material between them. Often they are attached to one another by desmosomes. Consequently, these cells provide effective protective barriers in such structures as the outer layer of the skin and the inner lining of the mouth . Other epithelial functions include secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensory reception. Connective tissues occur throughout the body and represent the most abundant type of tissue by weight. They bind structures together, provide support and protection, serve as frameworks, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells, provide protection against infections, and help repair tissue damage. Connective tissue cells are usually further apart than epithelial cells, and they have an abundance of intercellular material, or matrix, between them. This matrix consists of fibers and a ground substance whose consistency varies from fluid to semisolid to solid. Connective tissue cells are able to reproduce. In most cases, they have good blood supplies and are well nourished. Although some connective tissues, such as bone and cartilage, are quite rigid, loose connective tissue, 45 adipose connective tissue, and fibrous connective tissue are more flexible. Muscle tissues are contractile; that is their elongated cells, or muscle fibers, can change shape by becoming shorter and thicker. As they contract, the muscle fibers pull at their attached ends and cause body parts to move. The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Nerve tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The basic cells of this tissue are called nerve cells, or neurons, and they are among the more highly specialized body cells. Neurons are sensitive to certain types of changes in their surroundings. They respond by transmitting nerve impulses along cytoplasmic extensions to other neurons or to muscles or glands. As a result of the extremely complex patterns by which neurons are connected with each other and with various body parts, they are able to coordinate and regulate many body functions. In addition to neurons, nerve tissue contains neuroglial cells. These cells support and bind the components of nerve tissue together, carry on phagocytosis, and help supply nutrients to neurons by connecting them to blood vessels. Answer the questions: 1 What is a tissue? 2 List the four major types of tissue. 46 3 What are the general characteristics of epithelial tissue? 4 List the general characteristics of connective tissue. 5 What is matrix? 6 What are the three types of muscle tissue? 7 Describe the general characteristics of nerve tissue. 8 Distingwish between neurons and neuroglial cells. 47 Список літератури 1 Гурська А.І., Новосядла Є.Й. та ін. English for Advanced Medical Students. – Львів: Світ. – 2003. – ст. 15-16, 24-26, 189-190 2 Лотовська Р.М., Гурська А.І., Сенів С.М. Англійська мова для студентів - медиків. - К.: Вища школа. – 1994. – ст. 235-236 3 Аврахова Л.Я., Павлушина Р.Х. Health Services in the USA and Great Britain. - К.: НМУ. – 1999. – ст. 512 4 John W. Hole. Human Anatomy and Physiology. – USA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers. – 1990. – ст. 65-100 5 Health. – Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. – 1990. – ст. 21-32 6 Health and Medical Annual. – Chicago: World Book Inc. – 1995. – ст. 14-16 7 D. Ignatavicius, L. Workman, M. Mishler. Medical – Surgical Nursing. – USA: W. B. Saunders Company. – 1995. – ст. 563-611 48 Міністерство освіти і науки України Сумський державний університет Методичні вказівки до практичних занять з дисципліни «Англійська мова» / Укладач І.М. ерлецькі.- Суми: Вид-во СумДУ, 2006. – 48c. Кафедра іноземних мов Методичні вказівки до практичних занять з дисципліни «Англійська мова» в I семестрі для студентів спеціальності 7.110101 денної форми навчання Суми Вид-во СумДУ 2006 Навчальне видання Методичні вказівки до практичних занять з дисципліни « Англійська мова » в І семестрі для студентів спеціальності 7.110101 денної форми навчання Укладач І.М. Терлецька Комп’ютерне верстання В.О. Бойко Редактор Н.О. Кравченко Відповідальний за випуск Г.І. Литвинеко Підп. до друку, поз. Формат 60х84/16. Папір офс. Друк офс. Ум. друк. арк.. Обл.-вид. арк. Тираж 150 пр. Собівартість вид. Зам. № Видавництво СумДУ при Сумському державному університеті 40007, Суми, вул. Р.-Корсакова,2 Свідоцтво про внесення суб’єкта видавничої справи до Державного реєстру ДК № 2365 від 08.12.2005. Надруковано у друкарні СумДУ 40007, Суми, вул. Р.-Корсакова,2. МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ СУМСЬКИЙ ДЕРЖАВНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ До друку та в світ дозволяю на підставі «Єдиних правил», п.2.6.14 Заступник першого проректора – начальник методично – організаційного управління В.Б. Юскаєв Методичні вказівки до практичних занять з дисципліни « Англійська мова » в І семестрі для студентів спеціальності 7.110101 денної форми навчання Усі цитати, цифровий, фактичний матеріал, бібліографічні відомості перевірені, написання одиниць відповідає стандартам Укладач І.М. Терлецька Відповідальний за випуск Г.І. Литвинеко Декан факультету Л.П. Валенкевич Суми Вид-во СумДУ 2006