Download Introduction-To-Morphology

Introduction to morphology
By Ibnu Subroto, S.Pd, MM
morphology
Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words and the
rules for forming words from their subparts, which are called
morphemes.
Morphemes
• Morphemes are the smallest units in the structural analysis of words.
• [[[ green ] ish ] ness]
[un [break [able]]]
• It is often said that morphemes are the smallest units of meaning, but
this is not quite accurate. They are the smallest structural units the
learner identifies; to be identified as such a morpheme must have an
identifiable grammatical behavior, but not necessarily an identifiable
meaning.
• [ trans [ mit ]] [ trans [ miss ]] ion]
• [ per [ mit ]] [ per [ miss ]] ion]
• [ com [ mit ]] [ com [ miss ]] ion]
• However, the root [mit] shows an identifiable contanst grammatical
behavior: it changes to [miss] when the verb is used to make the
corresponding noun through suffixation of [-ion]
root, base
A root is the part of a word that cannot be changed, and when added to creates
different forms of the word: "Walk" is a root, and can be changed in many ways:
walking, walked, walker, walkie-talkie, sidewalk, walk-light, walks etc. You will never
have a word related to walking where the "walk" part gets changed, so it is a root.
A base is any part of a word that you can add inflections to, or that you can add
prefixes/suffixes that change the meaning/part of speech. So "walk" is also a base,
because it can have inflections (walking) and can be turned into different words
(walker is a noun). Walker is also a base, because you can modify it inflectionally
(walkers is plural), and because it can have things added to derive new words (dogwalker).
Root word is the basic word with no affixes: e.g. brain, dog, cake
Base is every form to which an affix can be added. (Therefore all roots are
bases: e.g. un-reliability,
root, base
Root
likes , dislike , disliked = like
penjelasan : like adalah akar dari likes , dislike dan disliked
Itu artinya root merupakaan bentuk asli suatu kata tanpa imbuhan apapun .
STEM
Steam merupakan suatu kata yang diberi imbuhan tertentu tapi tidak mengubah jenis kata itu . Misalnya root adalah kata benda maka
steamnya harus kata benda , jika root kata sifat maka steam juga kata sifat .Berikut
contoh nya
friend = friends (benar)
penjelasan : friend adalah root yang berupa kata benda maka stemnya juga kata benda yaitu friends
friend = friendly (salah)
penjelasan : friend adalah kata benda sedangkan friendly adalah kata sifat jadi tidak sejenis
BASE
Semua root dan stem adalah base tapi tidak semua base bisa jadi root dan stem . contohnya
unfriendly = friend / friendly / unfriend
penjelasan : base nya bis friend , friendly ataupun unfriend
root dari likes , dislike dan disliked
More morphology
Root word is the basic word with no affixes: e.g. brain, dog, cake
Base is every form to which an affix can be added. (Therefore all roots
and stems are bases: e.g. un-reliability,
Seven major Word Classes:
• 1. Verb: be, drive, grow, sing, think
• 2. Noun: brother, car, David, house, London
• 3. Determiner: a, an, my, some, the
• 4. Adjective: big, foolish, happy, talented, tidy
• 5. Adverb: happily, recently, soon, then, there
• 6. Preposition: at, in, of, over, with
• 7. Conjunction: and, because, but, if, or
OPEN AND CLOSED WORD CLASSES
• OPEN WORD CLASSES
• new words can be added to the class as the need arises (new
scientific discoveries are made, new products are developed, and new
ideas are explored): Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb
• CLOSED WORD CLASSES
• made up of finite sets of words which are never expanded:
Prepositions,Determiners, Conjunctions
NOUNS
•
Many nouns can be recognized by their endings. Typical noun endings
include:
-er/-or: actor, painter, plumber, writer
-ism: criticism, egotism, magnetism, vandalism
-ist: artist, capitalist, journalist, scientist
-ment: arrangement, development, establishment, government
-tion: foundation, organization, recognition, supposition
Most nouns have distinctive SINGULAR and PLURAL forms.
The plural of regular nouns is formed by adding -s to the singular:
Singular: car, dog, house Plural: cars, dogs, houses
What about irregular nouns?
Singular: man, child, sheep Plural: men, children, sheep
(The distinction: NUMBER CONTRAST)
• Nouns may take the GENITIVE MARKER (-’s)
• Proper and Common Nouns
Common: Count & Non-count Nouns
Proper: Specific people, places, times, dates
Pronoun
major subclass of nouns è sometimes replace a noun in a sentence
1.Personal Pronouns, stand in for people, places, things and ideas subjective (I, you,
we, they, he, she, it) and objective pronouns (me, you, us, them, him, her, it)
2. Possessive Pronouns: mine, yours, ours, theirs, hers, his, its
3. Demonstrative Pronouns, point out a specific persons, animals, places, things or
ideas: this, that, these, those.
4. Indefinite Pronouns, replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace.
Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone,
something
Plural: both, few, many, others, several
Singular or plural: all, any, more, most, none, some
Relation between phonetics and phonology
Phonetics and phonology are related, dependent fields for studying aspects of language
• Phonology is the study of the properties of • Phonetics,The branch of linguistics
sound systems, the principles that govern
that deals with the sounds of
the ways in which speakers of different
speech and their production,
languages organise speech sounds to
express meanings.
combination, description, and
• Phonology is the study (and use) of sound
representation by written symbols.
patterns to create meaning
• Phonetics is the study of sound in
• Phonology relies on phonetic information
speech;
for its practice, but focuses on how
patterns in both speech and non-verbal
•
Phonetics
focuses
on
how
speech
communication create meaning, and how
is physically created and received,
such patterns are interpreted. Phonology
includes comparative linguistic studies of
including study of the human vocal
how cognates, sounds, and meaning are
and auditory tracts, acoustics, and
transmitted among and between human
neurology
communities and languages.
Complementary distribution
• Complementary distribution is the distribution of phones in their respective phonetic
environments such that one never appears in the same phonetic context as the other.
When two variants are in complementary distribution, one can predict where each will
occur because one can simply look at the environment in which the allophone is
occurring.
• Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology, where similar phones in
complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance,
in English, [p] and [pʰ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in
complementary distribution. [pʰ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed
by a stressed vowel (as in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word
spin).
• There are cases where elements are in complementary distribution, but are not
considered allophones. For example in English [h] and [ŋ] are in complementary
distribution, since [h] only occurs at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end.
But because they have so little in common in phonetic terms they are still considered
separate phonemes.
Phonemes and allophones
• Phonemes, one of the units of sound that
distinguish one word from another in a
particular language. The difference in meaning
between the English words kill and kiss is a
result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for
the phoneme /s/. Two words that differ in
meaning through a contrast of a single
phoneme form a minimal pair
allophones
• one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) or signs
used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language
• one of two or more variants of the same phoneme <the aspirated \p\
of pin and the unaspirated \p\ of spin are allophones of the phoneme
\p\>
Phonological rules
Bruce Hayes (2009) describes them as "generalizations" about the different
ways a sound can be pronounced in different environments. That is to say,
phonological rules describe how a speaker goes from the abstract
representation stored in their brain, to the actual sound they articulate when
they speak. In general, phonological rules start with the underlying
representation of a sound (the phoneme that is stored in the speaker's mind)
and yield the final surface form, or what the speaker actually pronounces.
When an underlying for has multiple surface forms, this is often referred to
as allophony. For example, the English plural -s may be pronounced as [s] (in
"cats"), [z] (in "cabs"), or as [əz] (in "buses"); these forms are all theorized to
be stored mentally as the same -s, but the surface pronunciations are
derived through a phonological rule
Phonological Rules
PHONEMIC FORM
RULES
PHONETIC FORM
Phonological rules can be roughly divided into four types
• Assimilation: When a sound changes one of its features to be more similar to an adjacent sound.
This is the kind of rule that occurs in the English plural rule described above—the -s becomes
voiced or voiceless depending on whether or not the preceding consonant is voiced.
• Dissimilation: When a sound changes one of its features to become less similar to an adjacent
sound, usually to make the two sounds more distinguishable. This type of rule is often seen
among people speaking a language that is not their native language, where the sound contrasts
may be difficult. In learning the ordinal numbers, the numbers fifth and sixth always presented a
pronunciation challenge in this regard
• Insertion: When an extra sound is added between two others. This also occurs in the English
plural rule: when the plural morpheme -s is added to "bus," "bus-s" would be unpronouncable, so
a short vowel (the schwa, [ə]) is inserted between the two [s]s.
• Deletion: When a sound, such as a stressless syllable or a weak consonant, is not pronounced; for
example, most American English speakers do not pronounce the [d] in "handbag".
• When consonants are put in groups they can change the voiced or voiceless quality of the consonant that follows. A great example
of this is the past simple form of regular verbs. As you know, regular verbs add -ed to the end of the verb in the past simple.
play - played
wash - washed
live - lived etc.
• These past simple verbs all end in '-ed'. However, some of the verbs are pronounced with a voiceless 't' sound and some are
pronounced with the voiced 'd' sound. Why? Here are the rules:
• If -ed is preceded by a voiceless consonant sound (p, k, sh, etc.) -ed sounds as a voiceless 't'. Remember that the 'e' is silent.
• If -ed is preceded by a voiced consonant sound (d, b, v, etc.) -ed sounds as a voiced 'd'. Remember that the 'e' is silent.
• If -ed is preceded by a vowel sound (often 'ay') -ed sounds as a voiced 'd' because vowels are always voiced. Remember that the 'e'
is silent.
• Exception: If -ed is preceded by 't' pronounce a voiced -id. In this case, the 'e' is pronounced.
• This pattern can also be found with plural forms. If the consonant preceding the 's' is voiced, 's' will sound as voiced 'z':
• chairs
machines
bags
• If the consonant preceding the 's' is voiceless, 's' will sound as voiceless 's':
• bats
parks
pipes