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1919-1939 Acquisition and loss/loosening of control of territories Economic benefit or not? Nationalism within the colonies International climate of opinion Commitment i.e. political and popular support in Britain Empire ‘reached its greatest extent immediately after the FWW.’ Acquired a series of mandates from the defeated powers after 1914 – undeveloped German colonies they would hold on to and economically advance, Arab states that were to be prepared for independence 1910-14 25% Britain’s imports and 36% exports were with the Empire, 1925-29 this rose to 28% and 42%, 1935-39 39.5% and 49% Britain had to address the issue of future relations with various parts of Empire: 1920s ‘tremendous confidence about the future of the British Empire’ – rival German empire had been dismantled by TofV, French Empire weakened, Russian Empire had collapsed FWW had ‘demonstrated the importance of the imperial contribution in the defeat of both Germany and Turkey.’ ‘Britain and the Dominions had moved somewhat apart between the wars as self-government became actual independence…the whole structure of the Commonwealth was loosening.’ Yet there ‘remained a great deal of mutual affection and loyalty’ due to family connections and shared historical Resources ‘stretched almost to breaking point’. ‘Demobilisation was an economic necessity’ – Britain had to rely on total armed forces of 200,000 plus 100,000 Indian troops for defence/protection of Empire (vulnerable) ‘changing economic relationship with the Empire’ – by end of FWW obliged to sell many of her investments to pay for war effort, and balance of trade had altered; ‘India had become a significant competitor’ in textile production, Dominions – constitutional refinements to clear up uncertainty about British control over domestic or foreign policy – often led to a more open pursuit of individual interests e.g. commercial agreements/foreign policy (Chanak 1922) 1926 Balfour Declaration – equal in status, united by common allegiance to the Crown 1931 Statute of Westminster – repealed earlier constraints about laws in the Dominions, enabled them to enter into their own Empire ‘still seen as a positive and beneficent force.’ traditions Ultimate test – all Dominion’s (except Irish Free State and South Africa) supported Britain’s declaration of war on Germany. Relationship had changed – ‘weakened in terms of centralised sovereignty’ yet ‘strengthened in terms of voluntary association and support over crucial issues.’ and imported as much from Japan as Britain diplomatic relations with other countries Least developed parts – plan to prepare them for eventual self-rule and dominion status but no rush as other European colonial territories were not being prepared for selfrule so why should Britain? Seen as less developed, lower educational standards, low GDP and less contact with Westminster system of govt - unless govt was in white hands it would ‘lack the necessary experience of effective democracy.’ Better to leave existing systems in place for 2 reasons – relatively inexpensive and could be justified as an alternative to dominion status (didn’t allow for any expression of nationalism) India – ‘beginning to exert pressure for a redefined status’. ‘Britain’s most consistent imperial problem between the wars was India.’ Development of internal opposition to British rule – ‘main challenge came from middle-class movements’ – Congress and the Muslim League. ‘growing confrontation between the authorities and the elements demanding home rule for India’ – Amritsar massacre 1919, Gandhi’s civil disobedience campaign – British forced to consider some form of compromise for the future 1919 Government of India Act – proposed responsible self-rule in distant future – seen as too gradualistic and only for low level issues Replaced with 1935 Government of India Act – proposed a sort of apprenticeship to dominion status (made little progress towards this by time war broke out in 1939) - major differences in opinion about it (Churchill thought it went too far, Indian activists like Gandhi saw it as totally inadequate). Arab states – ‘Britain hoped to cut her losses and grant independence, on the understanding that British interests were in no way endangered.’ This worked in Egypt, Iraq and Transjordan More tricky in Palestine – 1917 Balfour Declaration established a national homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine – fiercely resisted by majority of Arab population. British tried to find a solution by handing Palestine a workable form of independence Post WW2 ‘After 1945…the process of decolonisation was extraordinarily rapid.’ By 1980s only Gibraltar, Falkland Islands and Hong Kong remained under British rule. J. Darwin believes the end of the Empire was a voluntary surrender of power – ‘British rule came to an end as the result of decisions taken, or ratified, in London’. Gradual decolonisation led to the ‘redefining’ of relationships via the Commonwealth G. Wasserman – ‘search for new outlets for investment no longer focused on underdeveloped parts of the world’ B. Lapping – ‘Britain could not have sustained imperial commitments while, at the same time, undergoing a contraction in her economic base.’ Evidence - reduction of overseas assets, unfavourable balance of trade R. Holland – ‘Britain’s economic condition meant that she had to adjust to new economic networks – based more on Europe.’ Evidence – decline in trade with Empire and Commonwealth, exports fell from 47.7% in 1950 to 24.4% in 1970, imports fell from 41.9% in 1950 to 25.9% in 1970 ‘Suez confirmed in the clearest possible way that the commitments Decolonisation ‘owed much to the growth of indigenous nationalism.’ Resistance movements initially against Japanese occupation of French and Dutch colonies were then directed against the attempted return of the Europeans. This ‘gave further strength to the drive for Indian independence – and a greater sense of urgency for Britain to concede it in 1947.’ ‘development of nationalism in Africa had pre-war roots’ but was ‘given a huge impetus by the success of anti-colonial movements’ elsewhere – this led to a ‘domino effect’. African nationalism also spread due to spread of English language and nationalist leaders unifying different groups through shared complaints. Increase in educational and medical standards led France and the Netherlands saw ‘preserving colonial empires’ as ‘less important than seeking closer [economic] integration in Europe’. ‘declining status of the imperial powers in a new bipolar world’ – Imperialism based on Europe as centre of politics, after 1945 USA and Soviet Union emerged as the two superpowers New superpowers – ‘strongly antiimperialistic’ In this new order things began to change – ‘the urgency of defence in Europe outweighed the needs of imperial defence.’ As proof, navy bore brunt of cuts 1956 Suez Crisis Britain’s role ‘contracted increasingly into a European one’ after Suez. Perhaps ‘less a turning point than an accelerator’ – making Britain move ‘public opinion had become far less attached to the concept of Empire’ – explained in 3 ways: 1). ‘a moral revulsion against imperialism’ 2). ‘a choice of priorities’ – people supported welfare state/social change which couldn’t be afforded alongside maintenance of Empire 3). ‘declining role and influence of the aristocracy’ – led to reduced public interest in empire There emerged a ‘consensus between the political parties that the colonial rule should be reduced.’ Macmillan ‘signalled the acceleration of decolonisation in his ‘wind of change’ speech’. 1956 Suez Crisis – ‘turning point in British attitudes to empire’? OR J. Darwin – ‘Suez did not trigger an imperial implosion nor of empire were a costly irrelevance.’ to increase in levels of taxation – angered Africans further Britain could no longer rely on ‘co-operation of indigenous agents or collaborators.’ New policy was ‘colonial withdrawal.’ Generally positive reaction in Britain to nationalism – seen as ‘an inevitable consequence of exposure to western democratic ideas on representation.’ Governments argued ‘self-government had always been the longterm intention and that the Empire was evolving naturally into the Commonwealth.’ Britain ‘used the model of the Commonwealth as a means of ending the Empire.’ more swiftly on independence arrangements that were already in place. Suez showed ‘the danger of antagonising the United States, as well as members of the Commonwealth, and it demonstrated the military difficulty of undertaking the sort of imperial action that Britain had once taken for granted.’ instigate a sudden revulsion against colonial rule among the policy makers.’?