Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Rise of Sovereignty Introduction In the period from 1600 to 1715, the traditional hierarchical structure of European society came under new pressures. As you recall, this structure was one in which a large class of poor agricultural laborers (the peasantry) supported a small and wealthy class of elites (the nobility). As the monarchs of Europe fought wars to expand their kingdoms and created larger state bureaucracies to manage them, the pressure to raise greater sums of money through taxes stretched the economies and social structures of European societies to the breaking point. Meanwhile, the continuous increase in trade and diversification of the economy was creating a new class of people: a middle class made up of merchants and professionals that did not fit comfortably into the traditional hierarchy. Changes in the social and political structure of the seventeenth century were mirrored in the evolution of artistic style. Economic Stress and Change A series of unusually harsh winters that characterized the "little ice age" of the 1600s led to a series of poor harvests, which, in turn, led to malnutrition and disease. In an effort to cope with increasing poverty, members of the besieged agricultural class opted to have smaller families. This combination of famine, poverty, and disease led to a significant decrease in the population during this period. These "natural" problems that plagued the peasantry of Europe were exacerbated during this period by increasing demands from the nobility that ruled them. The endless warfare waged by the rival monarchs of Europe at this time further depleted the agricultural population by conscripting their sons into the army and taking them off to war. War also required money that the monarchs and their governments attempted to raise by increasing taxes. Because the nobility was largely exempt from taxes, the peasantry bore the brunt of this new economic burden. In many places, the peasantry resisted violently in a series of tax revolts, but temporary concessions won by them were quickly reversed. Resistance to the monarchs' desire for increased power and wealth came from provincial nobles, town officials, and church leaders. The outcome of these power struggles varied from kingdom to kingdom. Britain: The Triumph of Constitutionalism In Britain, these tensions came to a head in the form of a struggle between the monarchs of the Stuart dynasty and the English Parliament. Already an old and important institution by 1600, the English Parliament was an assembly of elites who advised the king. However, it differed from its counterparts in the other European kingdoms in several important ways: Its members were elected by the property-holding people of their county or district. Eligibility for election was based on property ownership, so its members included wealthy merchants and professional men as well as nobles. Members voted individually rather than as an order or class. As a result, the English Parliament of the seventeenth century was an alliance of nobles and well-to-do members of a thriving merchant and professional class that saw itself as a voice of the "English people," and it soon clashed with the monarch it had invited to succeed the heirless Elizabeth I. When James Stuart, the reigning king of Scotland (known there as James VI), agreed to take the throne of England as James I (1603–1625), he was determined to rule England in the manner described by the theory of absolutism. Under this theory, monarchs were viewed as appointed by God (an appointment known as the Divine Right of Kings). As such, they were entitled to rule with absolute authority over their subjects. Despite this tension, James I's reign was characterized by a contentious but peaceful coexistence with Parliament. A religious element was added when James's son and successor, Charles I (1625–1649), married a sister of the Catholic king of France. That, together with his insistence on waging costly wars with Spain and France, led to a confrontation with Parliament. Having provoked the Scots into invading England by threatening their religious independence, Charles I was forced to call on the English Parliament for yet more funds. Parliament responded by making funds contingent on the curbing of monarchical power. This stalemate degenerated into the English Civil War (1642–1646). Forces loyal to the king fought to defend the power of the monarchy, the official Church of England, and the privileges and prerogatives of the nobility; forces supporting Parliament fought to uphold the rights of Parliament, to bring an end to the notion of an official state church, and for notions of individual liberty and the rule of law. The victory of the Parliamentary forces led to the trial and execution of Charles I for treason and to the establishment of the Commonwealth (1649–1660). The Commonwealth deteriorated into a fundamentalist Protestant dictatorship under the rule of the Parliamentary army's leading general, Oliver Cromwell. Upon Cromwell's death in 1658, English Parliamentarians worked to establish aRestoration (1660–1688) of the English monarchy, inviting the son of the king they executed to take the throne as Charles II (1660–1685). The relative peace of the Restoration period broke down when Charles's brother, a Catholic, ascended to the throne as James II (1685–1688). James was determined to establish religious freedom for Catholics, to avenge his father, and to restore absolute monarchy to Britain. To thwart James's plans, Parliament enlisted the aid of the king's eldest daughter, Mary, the Protestant wife of William of Orange of the Netherlands. The quick, nearly bloodless uprising that coordinated Parliament-led uprisings with the invasion of a Protestant fleet and army from the Netherlands, and which led to the quick expulsion of James II in 1688, is known as the Glorious Revolution. The reign of William and Mary marks the clear establishment of a constitutional monarchy, a system by which the monarch in Britain rules within the limits of the laws passed by a legislative body. The text written by the leading legal spokesman of the Parliamentary faction, John Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690), is still read today as the primary argument for the establishment of natural limits to governmental authority. France: Absolutism Several key differences allowed for a far different outcome in France. A series of religious and dynastic wars in the sixteenth century produced a kingdom in which the religious issue had been settled firmly in favor of the Catholic majority. The lack of religious turmoil in the seventeenth century allowed the French monarchy to cement an alliance with both the clergy and the middle class, and to use the great administrative expertise of both to build a powerful centralized government. Both Louis XIII (1610–1643) and Louis XIV (1643–1715) relied on well-connected Catholic Cardinals to oversee the consolidation of royal power by transferring local authority from provincial nobility to a bureaucracy that was both efficient and trustworthy. As chief minister to Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu used the royal army to disband the private armies of the great French aristocrats and to strip the autonomy granted to the few remaining Protestant towns. More significantly, he stripped provincial aristocrats and elites of their administrative power by dividing France into some 30 administrative districts and putting each under the control of an intendent, an administrative bureaucrat, usually chosen from the middle class, who owed his position and, therefore, his loyalty directly to Richelieu. These policies were continued by Richelieu's successor as chief minister, Cardinal Jules Mazarin, and perfected by Louis XIV when he took full control of the government upon Mazarin's death in 1661. To the intimidation tactics practiced by Richelieu and Mazarin, Louis added bribery. Building the great palace at Versailles, 11 miles outside of Paris, Louis presented the nobility of France with a choice: Oppose him and face destruction or join him and be part of the most lavish court in Europe. In choosing to spend most of their time at Versailles, French nobles forfeited the advantages that made their English Parliamentary counterparts so powerful: control of both the wealth and loyalty of their local provinces and districts. As a result, Louis XIV became known as "the Sun King" because all French life seemed to revolve around him as the planets revolved around the sun. Central and Eastern Europe: Compromise Whereas the contests for power and sovereignty in Britain and France had clear winners and losers, similar contests in the European kingdoms further to the east resulted in a series of compromises between monarchs and rival elites. In general, kingdoms in central and eastern Europe, such as Brandenburg–Prussia, the independent German states, Austria, and Poland, were less economically developed than their western counterparts. The economies of Britain and France in the seventeenth century were based on an agricultural system run by a free and mobile peasantry and supplemented by an increasingly prosperous middle class consisting of artisans and merchants in thriving towns. In contrast, the land-holding nobility of the kingdoms in central and eastern Europe during this period managed to retain control of vast estates worked by serfs who were bound by the land. By doing so, they were able to avoid the erosion of wealth that weakened their counterparts in Britain and France. In both Britain and France, the power struggle between the monarch and the elites was won by the side that managed to form an alliance with the wealthy merchant and professional class. In the European kingdoms further east, however, these classes failed to gain in wealth and numbers as their counterparts in Britain and France had done. As a result, the stalemate between royal and aristocratic wealth and power remained more balanced, necessitating compromise. Russia: Tsarist Absolutism The seventeenth-century kingdom furthest to the east proved to be an exception to the rule, as its monarchs, the Tsars, managed to achieve a high degree of absolutism despite an agricultural economy based on serfdom and the lack of an alliance with a thriving middle class. During the period beginning in 1613 and reaching its zenith with the reign of Peter the Great (1689–1725), the Romanov Tsars consolidated their power by buying the loyalty of the nobles. In return for their loyalty, the Romanov Tsars gave the nobility complete control over the classes of people below them. A prime example is the Law Code of 1649, which converted the legal status of groups as varied as peasants and slaves into that of a single class of serfs. Under the Romanov Tsars, the Russian nobility also enjoyed the fruit of new lands and wealth acquired by aggressive expansion of the Russian Empire eastward into Asia. With the nobility firmly tied to the Tsar, opposition to the Tsar's power manifested itself only periodically in the form of revolts from coalitions of smaller landholders and peasants angered by the progressive loss of their wealth and rights. Such revolts, like the revolts of the Cossacks in the 1660s and early 1670s, were ruthlessly put down by the Tsar's increasingly modern military forces, and controlled thereafter by the creation of a state bureaucracy modeled on those in western Europe, and by encouraging the primacy and importance of the Russian Orthodox Church that taught that the traditional social hierarchy was mandated by God. The Baroque Style The dominant artistic style of the seventeenth century is known as baroque. In the most general sense, the baroque style was characterized by its emphasis on grandeur and drama. In response to the Reformation, the Catholic Church in Europe decreed that art should focus on religious themes and cultivate an environment of contemplation and holiness. The resulting artistic style, developed initially by artists of Rome, is sometimes known as Counter-Reformation Baroque. An excellent example in architecture is the Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini's St. Theresa in Ecstasy (1645–1652), which decorates the Cornaro Chapel in Rome, is an example of the CounterReformation Baroque style in sculpture, while Caravaggio's Calling of St. Matthew (c.1598) and Conversion of St. Paul (c.1602) exemplify the Counter-Reformation Baroque style in painting. The grandeur of the baroque also appealed to the absolutist monarchs of the seventeenth century, and under their patronage the baroque evolved beyond religious subject matter. Louis XIV of France had his great Versailles Palace (1661–1668) built in the baroque style. The sculptor Bernini produced his famous portrait bust of Louis XIV in 1665. The painter Peter Paul Rubens created baroque masterpieces for many of the monarchs of Europe. Among the most renowned examples are his cycle of 21 large canvases for the walls of the Festival Gallery of Louis XIII's Luxembourg Palace, including Henry IV Receiving the Portrait of Maria de Medici (1622–1625). The baroque style reached its pinnacle when it migrated away from the royal courts and flourished in the city of Amsterdam. There, Dutch masters adopted baroque style to depict the grandeur of that bustling center of trade and learning. Foremost among them was Rembrandt van Rijn (usually just known as Rembrandt), who captured the civic pride of the Dutch in such paintings as The Night Watch (1642) and who displayed his personal pride in his series of self-portraits. Rapid Review During the period from 1600 to 1715, the dynamics of the traditional, hierarchical social structure of European kingdoms came under new pressures. As their economies underwent a transformation from a purely agricultural base to a more complex system that included expanding trade and the uneven growth of a middle class of merchants and professionals, European monarchs attempted to solidify their claims to sovereignty. In Britain, their attempts failed as a section of the traditional nobility (which was motivated by both self-interest and religious conviction) formed an alliance with like-minded members of the rising merchant and professional class within Parliament, creating a system of shared sovereignty known as constitutional monarchy. In France, the Bourbon monarchs managed to form alliances with both the French Catholic Church and the middle classes to establish a system of Royal absolutism. In central and eastern European kingdoms like Brandenburg–Prussia, the German States, Austria, and Poland, a less dynamic economy meant that the stalemate between monarchs and traditional nobility was harder to break, and a series of power-sharing arrangements was made. Furthest east, in Russia, the Romanov Tsars constructed an alliance with the grandest of the landowning nobility at the expense of the classes below them and consolidated their power by expanding their empire and ruthlessly crushing opposition from below. Changes in the social and political structure were mirrored by the development of the baroque style in the arts.