Download Orogenic Belts and Orogenic Sediment Provenance

Orogenic Belts and Orogenic Sediment Provenance
Eduardo Garzanti,1 Carlo Doglioni,2 Giovanni Vezzoli, and Sergio Andò
Laboratorio di Petrografia del Sedimentario, Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche e Geotecnologie,
Università di Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 4, 20126 Milano, Italy
(e-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
By selecting a limited number of variables (westward vs. eastward subduction polarity; oceanic vs. continental origin
of downgoing and overriding plates), we identify eight end-member scenarios of plate convergence and orogeny. These
are characterized by five different types of composite orogenic prisms uplifted above subduction zones to become
sources of terrigenous sediments (Indo-Burman-type subduction complexes, Apennine-type thin-skinned orogens,
Oman-type obduction orogens, Andean-type cordilleras, and Alpine-type collision orogens). Each type of composite
orogen is envisaged here as the tectonic assembly of subparallel geological domains consisting of genetically associated
rock complexes. Five types of such elongated orogenic domains are identified as the primary building blocks of
composite orogens: magmatic arcs, obducted or accreted ophiolites, neometamorphic axial belts, accreted paleomargin
remnants, and accreted orogenic clastic wedges. Detailed provenance studies on modern convergent-margin settings
from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean show that erosion of each single orogenic domain produces peculiar
detrital modes, heavy-mineral assemblages, and unroofing trends that can be predicted and modeled. Five corresponding primary types of sediment provenances (magmatic arc, ophiolite, axial belt, continental block, and clastic wedge
provenances) are thus identified, which reproduce, redefine, or integrate provenance types and variants originally
recognized by W. R. Dickinson and C. A. Suczek in 1979. These five primary provenances may be variously recombined
in order to describe the full complexities of mixed detrital signatures produced by erosion of different types of
composite orogenic prisms. Our provenance model represents a flexible and valuable conceptual tool to predict the
evolutionary trends of detrital modes and heavy-mineral assemblages produced by uplift and progressive erosional
unroofing of various types of orogenic belts and to interpret petrofacies from arc-related, foreland-basin, foredeep, and
remnant-ocean clastic wedges.
Introduction
The overall geometry of orogenic belts produced
by subduction … is fundamental for provenance
analysis on a global scale. (Dickinson 1988, p.
18)
each mountain chain has its own peculiarities and
stands as a case apart.
As a consequence, modeling the provenance of
orogenic sediments and sedimentary rocks is an arduous task, and a systematic quantitative treatment of orogenic sediment provenance is lacking.
Classic provenance models have dealt with this intricate problem in only a general way, loosely discriminating among three distinct types of orogenic
settings (subduction complex, collision-orogen/suture belt, and foreland fold-thrust belt) and three
corresponding types of “recycled orogen provenances” (Dickinson and Suczek 1979; Dickinson
1985).
This article focuses on topographically elevated
sources of detritus found within thrust belts and
arc-trench systems (rather than on the associated
basins representing sediment sinks; Dickinson
Orogens are stacks of rock units uplifted above subduction zones by tectonic and magmatic processes,
which are influenced by subduction geometry as
well as the nature and geological history of converging plates. Although distinct types of orogenic
prisms may be identified, natural processes are so
varied and complex that any attempt to classify
orogenic belts sounds like a hopeless challenge;
Manuscript received June 15, 2006; accepted December 6,
2006.
1
Author for correspondence.
2
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università La Sapienza, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy; e-mail: carlo
[email protected].
[The Journal of Geology, 2007, volume 115, p. 315–334] 䉷 2007 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0022-1376/2007/11503-0004$15.00
315
316
E. GARZANTI ET AL.
1988) and proposes a simplified classification of
orogenic domains that is intended to represent a
useful reference model for a better description and
understanding of orogenic sediment provenance.
Subduction Polarities and Orogen Types
Current circum-Pacific arcs include east-facing
island arcs and west-facing continental arcs in
a consistent pattern that implies net westward
drift of continental lithosphere with respect to
underlying asthenosphere. (Dickinson 1978, p.
1)
Two opposite subduction polarities have long been
recognized (Nelson and Temple 1972; Uyeda and
Kanamori 1979). Whereas back-arc spreading is
characteristic of east-facing arc-trench systems
(westward subduction), back-arc thrusting is most
widespread in west-facing arc-trench systems (eastward subduction; Dickinson 1978).
Such contrast has often been ascribed to the age
of subducting oceanic lithosphere, with older lithosphere being denser and consequently prone to
generate a more efficient slab pull (Royden 1993).
Systematic analysis of subduction dip and convergence rate at the trench, however, fails to show any
significant correlation between age of downgoing
lithosphere and slab inclination (Cruciani et al.
2005).
Global tectonics is considered here as fundamentally controlled by Earth’s rotation, with lithospheric plates drifting westward with respect to
the mantle (Bostrom 1971; Dickinson 1978; Scoppola et al. 2006). Plate motions follow a sinusoidal
flow, oriented roughly westward in the Atlantic
Ocean but turning west-northwestward in the Pacific Ocean and finally bending southwestward in
Asia (Crespi et al. 2007). Referring to such mainstream of plate motion, we identify two end members of subduction zones, associated with two fundamental types of orogens.
Westward subduction zones oppose mantle flow
and tend to be steeper. Décollement planes are shallow and affect only the upper layers of the downgoing plate. Low-relief, thin-skinned, singly vergent orogens are produced, chiefly consisting of
volcanic or sedimentary rocks (e.g., Lesser Antilles,
Sandwich, Apennines, Carpathians, Banda, Tonga,
Marianas, Nankai, Kurili, Aleutians; Doglioni et al.
2006).
Instead, eastward subduction zones follow mantle flow and are less inclined. Decollement planes
cut across the whole crust, allowing the exhumation of deep-seated rocks. High-relief, thick-
skinned, doubly vergent orogens are produced
(Koons 1990; Willett et al. 1993), largely consisting
of neometamorphic and plutonic rocks (Andes,
Alps, Caucasus, Zagros, Himalayas, Indonesia, Taiwan, New Zealand Alps; Doglioni et al. 2006).
As a general rule, the subduction hinge moves
away from the upper plate in westward subduction
zones and toward the upper plate in eastward subduction zones. This dichotomy corresponds with
the distinction between “pull-arc” and “push-arc”
orogens (Laubscher 1988). Note that the term “eastward” is used loosely here to designate subduction
zones that follow mantle flow, even if these are
actually oriented northeastward in Eurasia (e.g.,
Himalayas) because of the undulated mainstream
of plate motion (Crespi et al. 2007). If the net westerly drift of lithospheric plates is controlled by
Earth’s rotation, an astronomical mechanism that
cannot be inverted, this model should be valid also
for the geologic past.
Geometries of Plate Convergence
If the present is the key to the past, perhaps
global paleotectonic and paleogeographic reconstructions should be based on the actualistic hypotheses that … backarc spreading occurs where
arc orogens face east, and that backarc thrusting
occurs where arc orogens face west. (Dickinson
1988, p. 20)
Subduction involves a lower downgoing plate and
an upper overriding plate, both of which can be
either oceanic or continental. By considering all
possible basic combinations between subduction
polariy (westward vs. eastward) and nature of converging plates (oceanic vs. continental), the types
of plate convergence are reduced to eight end members (fig. 1). The pro side of the orogen is the one
facing the subduction zone.
Westward Intraoceanic Subduction. Westward intraoceanic subduction is widespread along the
western Pacific (e.g., Philippines and Marianas) and
occurs in the western Atlantic (Lesser Antilles and
South Sandwich Islands) and western Mediterranean Sea (Aeolian Islands). The age of the oceanic
crust is syn-subduction in the back-arc basin and
generally much older in the lower plate. The arctrench system formed above the subduction zone
includes calc-alkaline igneous rocks (arc massif)
and oceanic rocks scraped off the subducting plate
(oceanic prism).
Westward Subduction of Oceanic Lithosphere beneath Continental Lithosphere. This setting is typ-
ical of newly formed westward subduction zones,
Figure 1. Eight true-scale schematic diagrams illustrate different styles of orogenic deformation for the eight identified scenarios of plate convergence. Orogens are made of rocks accreted from the lower and/or upper plates; shades
of continental crust highlight upper plate (dark brown) versus lower plate (light brown) contributions. East-facing,
singly vergent, and low-relief prisms largely consist of deformed lower-plate rocks (C, D). West-facing, doubly vergent,
and high-relief orogens mostly consist of deformed upper-plate rocks in precollisional stages (F), lower-plate rocks
being massively involved only during final continental collision (G, H). High-pressure neometamorphic rocks, exhumed in west-facing orogens, are light blue. The profound global asymmetry between east-facing versus west-facing
orogens and subduction zones can be fully appreciated only when the mainstream of plate motions is recognized.
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E. GARZANTI ET AL.
which may develop along the retro side of thickskinned orogens generated by preexisting eastward
subduction (e.g., initiation of Barbados subduction;
Doglioni et al. 1999). Large crustal slices of the inactive orogen are boudinaged during progressing
back-arc extension and dragged eastward while the
subduction hinge migrates away from the upper
plate (e.g., Calabria and pre-Pleistocene of northern
Japan; Doglioni et al. 1998).
The pro side of the orogen is an accretionary
prism, developed at the expense of the uppermost
layers of the subducting plate and largely represented by oceanic sediments (e.g., Nankai Trough;
Moore et al. 1990). Perhaps the best modern example is northern New Zealand, where the oceanic
Pacific Plate subducts beneath stretched continental lithosphere (Henrys et al. 2006). The upper-plate
crustal extension is propagating southward across
the low-topography North Island, unzipping the
nascent Taupo back-arc basin (Parson and Wright
1996; Beanland and Haines 1998). Subduction polarity changes farther south, where South Island
is instead characterized by a doubly vergent, hightopography compressional orogen produced by continental collision (Beaumont et al. 1996b).
Westward Subduction of Continental Lithosphere beneath Oceanic Lithosphere. At the final stage of oce-
anic subduction or laterally to an active oceanic
segment (e.g., Banda Arc), thinned continental lithosphere may be pulled down to 100–250 km (Müller
and Panza 1986; Ranalli et al. 2000), until subduction is eventually throttled by buoyant lithosphere
of closer-to-normal thickness (e.g., Southern Apennines).
East-facing singly vergent orogens formed above
westward subduction zones are characterized by
low structural relief (Doglioni et al. 1999). The pro
side of the orogen is a thin-skinned thrust belt (including sedimentary sequences originally deposited
on a continental paleomargin and frontally accreted
turbidites), whereas its retro side is a magmatic arc
(better developed if subduction is faster; Tatsumi
and Eggins 1995).
Because little sediment is produced by the lowrelief orogen and tectonic subsidence is one order
of magnitude greater than for eastward subductions
(Doglioni 1994), the sedimentary basin formed both
in front of and above (Ori and Friend 1984) the
growing accretionary prism typically remains
persistently in deepwater conditions (“foredeep”).
Foredeeps formed above westward-subducting continental margins are contrasted here with less subsident foreland basins associated with high-relief
Alpine-type collision orogens, which are rapidly ov-
erfilled with shallow-marine to fluvial sediments
(Doglioni 1994).
Westward Subduction of Continental Lithosphere beneath Continental Lithosphere.
This case differs
from the one described above only because extension on the retro side of the orogen is insufficient
to tear the crust, and an ensialic back-arc basin
develops (e.g., Pannonian Basin in the rear of the
Carpathians; Horvath 1993). This has no systematic influence on the structure of the orogen and,
thus, on terrigenous supply.
Eastward Intraoceanic Subduction. The few modern examples include the Vanuatu (New Hebrides),
where a doubly vergent intraoceanic prism has been
produced by collision of the volcanic arc with oceanic plateaus, submarine ridges, and seamounts
(Taylor et al. 1995; Meffre and Crawford 2001). Eastward subduction also takes place along highly
oblique intraoceanic convergence zones beneath
the Macquarie Ridge (Massell et al. 2000) and the
Andaman Sea, a young pull-apart oceanic basin
(Curray 2005). The Andaman-Nicobar Ridge is a
tectonic stack of arc-derived and remnant-ocean
turbidites capped by forearc ophiolites (Allen et al.,
forthcoming). Ophiolites represent the only subaerial exposure of the Macquarie Ridge (Rivizzigno
and Karson 2004).
Eastward Subduction of Oceanic Lithosphere beneath
Continental Lithosphere.
The classic example is
the eastern Pacific, bordered by a continuous highrelief cordillera from Alaska to the Andes (Jaillard
et al. 2002). Because viscosity is much higher in
the lower oceanic plate, shortening is mostly concentrated in the upper continental plate, and the
orogen chiefly consists of upper-plate material (table 1). The lower plate may be subducted entirely,
and even tectonic erosion commonly takes place
because of this marked rigidity contrast (von Huene
and Lallemand 1990; Ranero and von Huene 2000).
In contrast, accretion typically occurs where the
lower plate is overlain by thick deep-sea turbidites
(e.g., Alaska and Sumatra; Dickinson 1995; Ingersoll et al. 2003).
The pro side of the orogen is an arc-trench system, with a forebelt of variable width cored by basement rocks (von Huene 1986). The retro side is a
thick-skinned thrust belt also involving basement
but frequently propagating toward the foreland in
thin-skinned mode (e.g., Rocky Mountains; Bally
et al. 1966).
The orogen generally undergoes compression and
uplift, but extension may develop where motion of
the lower plate has been inverted after subduction
of a mid-ocean ridge (e.g., Basin and Range) or where
Journal of Geology
Table 1.
OROGENIC SEDIMENT PROVENANCE
319
Structural Features of Orogenic Belts Formed in the Eight Identified Scenarios of Plate Convergence
Lithosphere
Examples
Source of accreted
rock units
Process of prism
building
Westward subduction:
O/O
Marianas, Sandwich Lower plate
C/O
N. New Zealand,
Inherited upper plate ⫹
Calabria
lower plate
O/C
Banda, S. Apennines Inherited upper plate ⫹
lower plate
C/C
Carpathians, N.
Inherited upper plate ⫹
Apennines
lower plate
Eastward subduction:
O\O
Andamans, Vanuatu Upper plate ⫹ lower plate
O\C
Andes, Cascades
Mostly upper plate
C\O
Oman, Papua
Upper plate ⫹ lower plate
C\C
Himalayas, Alps
Upper plate ⫹ lower plate
Oceanic offscraping
Oceanic offscraping
Orogen type
Intraoceanic arc
Boudinaged belt and prism
Continental offscraping Boudinaged belt and prism
Continental offscraping Boudinaged belt and prism
Oceanic collision
Continental buckling
Obduction
Continental collision
Intraoceanic prism
Cordillera
Obduction orogen
Collision orogen
Note. Westward subduction p low relief, thin-skinned, singly vergent, “pull-arc” orogens with rapid subsidence of trench or
foredeep; oceanic (or ensialic) back-arc basin. Eastward subduction p high relief, thick-skinned, doubly vergent “push-arc” orogens
with slower subsidence of trench or foreland basin; no true back-arc basin. O p oceanic; C p continental. Topographic relief,
deformation style, and rock units involved are largely controlled by subduction polarity. The illustrated end-member orogens may
evolve dynamically through geologic time. When a continental margin arrives at the oceanic trench, pull-arc orogens (Laubscher
1988) evolve from northern New Zealand type to Banda type (or Carpathian type), ophiolite-capped push-arc orogens from Andaman
type to Oman type, and higher-topography push-arc orogens involving continental rocks in the hanging wall of the subduction zone
from Andean type to Himalayan type.
distinct subplates override the lower plate at different velocities (e.g., Aegean Sea; Doglioni 1995).
When we consider the undulated mainstream of
plate motions, the Sumatra-Java arc belongs to this
category.
Eastward Subduction of Continental Lithosphere beneath Oceanic Lithosphere. This setting represents
the final stage of eastward intraoceanic subduction,
when a continental margin arrives at an intraoceanic trench. Virtually intact slabs of dense oceanic upper-plate lithosphere can thus be emplaced
onto buoyant continental crust (“obduction”; Coleman 1971; Karig 1982). Such a process gives rise to
“ophiolite-capped thrust belts” (Cawood 1991), the
archetypal example being the Northern Oman orogen assembled at Late Cretaceous times (Searle and
Stevens 1984). The pro side of the obduction orogen
is a thick-skinned thrust belt, beneath which continental blueschists and eclogites of the axial belt
may be exposed. Its tectonic lid consists of a complete section of forearc mantle and crust, generated
synchronously with subduction and detached along
a mechanically weak boundary as deep as the asthenosphere (Spray 1984; Searle and Cox 1999).
Eastward Subduction of Continental Lithosphere beneath Continental Lithosphere. This setting repre-
sents the final stage of eastward oceanic subduction, when two continental margins collide.
Doubly vergent Alpine-type orogenic prisms with
high structural and topographic relief are thus produced (Doglioni et al. 1999). The axial part of the
orogen includes slivers of strongly thinned outer
continental margins and adjacent oceanic lithosphere that underwent high-pressure metamorphism in the early subduction stage of collision
(Beaumont et al. 1996a). Because thrust planes cut
across the lithosphere, deeply subducted eclogitic
rocks can be exhumed in a few million years (Rubatto and Hermann 2001; Baldwin et al. 2004).
Thick-skinned thrust belts formed along both external sides of the orogen include inner parts of
collided paleomargins underlain by continental
crust of closer-to-normal thickness as well as frontally accreted foreland-basin clastics. In external
belts, close to the contact with the axial belt, orogenic metamorphism may reach amphibolite facies
(Frey and Ferreiro Mählmann 1999).
Collision orogens are by no means all alike, and
major differences are displayed by two of the bestknown examples belonging to the same orogenic
system, the Alps and the Himalayas. The Himalayas have a much better developed arc-trench system, which can be traced for ∼3000 km from Pakistan to Myanmar (Gansser 1980). The axial belt of
the Alps includes a stack of both continental and
oceanic nappes showing widespread high-pressure
metamorphism. In contrast, in the Himalayas, the
axial belt is confined to a narrow wedge largely
consisting of amphibolite-facies metasediments extruded between a main thrust zone at the base and
a major detachment system at the top (Hodges
2000); oceanic units are lacking, and eclogites have
been recognized only locally so far (Lombardo and
Rolfo 2002). The retro side of the Alps consists of
Journal of Geology
OROGENIC SEDIMENT PROVENANCE
a well-defined, 50–100-km-wide, thick-skinned
thrust belt, whereas the deformed retro side of the
Himalayas is much broader and includes the vast
Tibetan plateau as well as a series of highly elevated
mountain chains (e.g., Hindukush-Karakorum, Pamir, and Tian Shan). Both external belts of the Alps
include deep-sea turbidites ranging in age from Cretaceous to Miocene, whereas foreland-basin clastics accreted along the front of the Himalayas
chiefly include Neogene fluvial sediments (Burbank et al. 1996; Najman 2006).
Classification of Orogenic Sediment Provenances
Given the potential diversity of recycled orogenic sediment, it is a severe challenge to devise
a scheme for its identification and classification
that has empyrical validity for interpretation of
the sedimentary record. (Dickinson 1985, p. 347)
Because orogenic belts are composite structures including diverse rock complexes assembled in various
ways by geodynamic processes, orogenic detritus
embraces a varied range of signatures. Unraveling
provenance of clastic wedges accumulated in foreland basins, foredeeps, or remnant-ocean basins is,
therefore, an arduous task that requires a sophisticated conceptual reference scheme.
The Dickinson Model. Orogenic detritus derives
either from volcano-plutonic rock suites generated
along active intraoceanic and continental arcs
(magmatic-arc provenance) or from mainly sedimentary or metamorphic rocks tectonically uplifted within subduction complexes (subduction
complex provenance), foreland fold-thrust belts
(foreland uplift provenance), and collision orogens
(collision orogen provenance; Dickinson and Suczek 1979). Subduction complex provenance is typified by chert-rich detritus from offscraped oceanic
slivers and abyssal-plain sediments, whereas foreland uplift provenance is characterized by varied
321
sedimentary lithics, moderately high quartz, and
minor feldspars and volcanic lithic grains. Sediments from collision orogens also have typically
intermediate quartz contents, high quartz/feldspar
ratio, and abundant sedimentary and metasedimentary lithic fragments (Dickinson and Suczek
1979; Dickinson 1985).
Dickinson and Suczek (1979) and Dickinson
(1985, 1988) recognized the intrinsically composite
nature of detritus shed from orogenic belts into associated sedimentary basins but did not attempt to
establish clear conceptual and operational distinctions among the three identified types of recycled
orogenic provenances. For instance, subduction
complex and collision orogen provenances may
both include detritus from ophiolitic mélanges, and
collision orogen and foreland uplift provenances
may include detritus from magmatic arc remnants
in relationship with relief distribution and drainage
patterns (Dickinson and Suczek 1979, p. 2176–
2178; Dickinson 1985, p. 350).
Observations from modern settings, where all
factors affecting sediment composition can be verified, reveal discrepancies with the Dickinson
model. Ophiolitic detritus is only marginally dealt
with. Large, subaerially exposed subduction complexes chiefly consist of offscraped turbidites and
thus typically shed abundant shale/slate grains
rather than chert (Garzanti et al. 2002a; E. Garzanti, data from the Indo-Burman Ranges). Detritus
from remnants of continental paleomargins incorporated within thrust belts shows close affinities
with anorogenic detritus of continental block provenance (Garzanti et al. 2003, 2006). Collision orogens produce a wide range of lithic/quartzolithic to
quartzofeldspathic signatures, including all possible mixtures of both first-cycle and multicycle detritus from neometamorphic, paleometamorphic,
plutonic, volcanic, and sedimentary rocks. Further
problems are caused by recycling of clastic wedges
Figure 2. Detrital modes, heavy-mineral assemblages, and compositional trends for the five identified types of
primary provenances. Shown are sample means of modern sand provinces in areas with arid climate and/or high relief
(sources cited in text); arc-derived volcano-plutonic sands include 32 Quaternary circum-Pacific suites compiled by
Marsaglia and Ingersoll (1992). Samples with transitional subprovenance are gray in all diagrams. Q p quartz, F p
feldspars, L p lithic grains (including Lc carbonate lithics; symbols have thick or very thick outlines if Lc/QFL% ≥
20 or ≥50, respectively). Lm p metasedimentary and felsic metaigneous lithic grains; Lv p volcanic, metavolcanic,
and mafic metaigneous lithic grains; Lu p ultramafic lithic grains (serpentinite, serpentine schist); Ls p
sedimentary lithic grains. A p amphiboles; P ⫹ O ⫹ S p pyroxenes ⫹ olivine ⫹ spinel; &tHM p other transparent
heavy minerals. The 90% confidence regions about the mean were calculated after Weltje (2002). Provenance fields
after Dickinson (1985; MA p magmatic arc, CB p continental block, RO p recycled orogen); field of recycling after
Garzanti et al. (2006).
322
E. GARZANTI ET AL.
accreted at the orogenic front (Garzanti et al. 2002a,
2004b, 2005).
As pointed out by Ingersoll (1990, p. 733), most of
these complexities cannot be succesfully handled
because “third-order fields (magmatic arc, recycled
orogen, and continental block) are useful for continental-scale analyses,” whereas “second-order fields
(e.g., undissected, transitional, and dissected arcs of
Dickinson 1985) are useful at the scale of mountain
ranges and basins.” In order to improve on the resolution of provenance models, this article focuses
on the structure of single orogenic belts rather than
on whole continents and ocean basins.
A Refined Two-Step Model for Orogenic Sediment
Provenance. The scheme presented here is based
on the simple observation that the complicated tectonic structure of composite orogens results from
the juxtaposition and superposition of a limited
number of geological domains, each including genetically associated rock complexes elongated subparallel to the orogen’s strike. Because major rivers
reach well into the core of the composite orogen,
sediments supplied to the associated basins are invariably a mixture of detritus from different types
of such linear domains (Dickinson and Suczek
1979). If mixed detrital signatures are too varied to
be modeled directly, then their complexity can be
handled by operating in two steps. We focus first
on detrital modes produced by each distinct type
of orogenic domain (primary orogenic provenances)
and only subsequently recombine the appropriate
types of primary provenances to model detrital
suites recorded in sedimentary basins (composite
orogenic provenances).
Five types of orogenic domains are identified here
as the primary building blocks of composite orogenic prisms: (1) magmatic arcs (autochthonous or
allochthonous sections of arc crust), (2) accreted or
obducted ophiolites (largely intact allochthonous
sections of oceanic lithosphere), (3) neometamorphic axial belts (polydeformed slivers of distal
continental margin crust and adjacent oceanic lithosphere that have undergone high-pressure to hightemperature metamorphism during subduction and
subsequent exhumation), (4) paleomargin remnants
(only weakly metamorphosed allochthonous sections of continental basement and/or overlying
platform to pelagic strata), and (5) orogenic clastic
wedges (accreted foreland-basin, foredeep, or remnant-ocean-basin terrigenous sequences).
As shown by provenance studies in modern orogenic settings from the Mediterranean Sea to the
Indian Ocean, detritus produced by the erosion of
each single orogenic domain is characterized by
unique detrital modes, heavy-mineral assemblages
and unroofing trends, which can be predicted and
modeled. The five types of orogenic domains thus
correspond to five types of primary sediment provenance (fig. 2).
Our scheme expands on the original Dickinson
model, with the following main modifications: (1)
magmatic arc provenance is unchanged, (2) ophiolite provenance is recognized as a new provenance
type, (3) axial belt provenance is defined as the most
distinctive type of collision orogen provenance, (4)
marked affinities between foreland uplift provenance (a type of orogenic sediment provenance in
Dickinson and Suczek 1979) and continental block
provenance (the anorogenic sediment provenance
in Dickinson and Suczek 1979) are emphasized, (5)
clastic wedge provenance is newly defined, in order
to single out, and put emphasis on, the thorny problem of sediment recycling. This latter provenance
type consists entirely of recycled orogen-derived
detritus, whereas the former four types chiefly consist of first-cycle detritus (with the limited exceptions of grains recycled from forearc basin strata
exposed in arc domains or from sandstone-bearing
passive-margin strata intercalated within paleomargin successions).
Such a moderate increase in complexity is held
as necessary and sufficient to appropriately handle
the full variety of cases observed along modern subduction zones. The proposed scheme is flexible
enough to reproduce the complete range of mixed
detrital signatures issued during erosional denudation of composite orogens and to predict the evolution of detrital modes and heavy-mineral assemblages as recorded in space and time by clastic
wedges deposited in arc-related, foreland, foredeep,
and remnant-ocean basins (table 2).
Primary Provenances and Unroofing Trends
Data for modern marine and terrestrial sands
from known tectonic settings provide standards
to evaluate the effect of tectonic setting on sandstone composition. (Dickinson and Suczek
1979, p. 2164)
The information contained in this section is based
on provenance studies of modern sediments produced and deposited in areas characterized mostly
by arid climate and/or high relief. The described
compositional signatures can thus be considered as
unaffected by significant chemical weathering and
diagenetic dissolution and to faithfully reflect
plate-tectonic setting and lithology of source terranes. Such primary detrital modes can be used as
a reference for assessing provenance of ancient clas-
Table 2. The Complex Problem of Modeling Orogenic Provenance is Handled by Operating in Two Steps
Composite orogens
Primary orogenic
provenances
Indo-Burman-type
subduction complexes
Apennine-type
thin-skinned orogens
Oman-type
obduction orogens
Andean-type
cordilleras
Alpine-type
collision orogens
Magmatic arc
Minor (largely recycled)
Dominant locally (retro side)
Minor locally (retro side)
Dominant (pro side)
Ophiolite
Significant locally (retro side)
Dominant (early stage)
Significant locally (pro side)
Axial belt
Insignificant
Dominant (late stage)
Significant locally (incorporated terranes)
Dominant (remnant-ocean
turbidites)
Significant locally (late
stage)
Dominant locally (late
stage)
Minor
Significant locally (pro side)
Continental block
Dominant locally (subduction complex remnants)
Dominant locally (boudinaged remnants)
Major
Significant locally (early stage r
undissected arc; late stage r
dissected arc)
Significant locally (early stage)
Dominant (retro side)
Major (late stage)
Major (retro side)
Major (foreland-basin clastics)
Clastic wedge
Major (foredeep turbidites)
Note. The diagnostic detrital modes produced by each distinct orogenic domain are first identified (primary orogenic provenances) and next appropriately recombined to describe
detrital suites recorded by arc-related, foreland, foredeep, and remnant-ocean basin fills (composite orogenic provenances). Locally significant to locally dominant provenances
may characterize first- to second-order-scale samples, whereas detritus of mixed provenance is invariably recorded at third-order scale (e.g., big rivers; Ingersoll 1990).
Journal of Geology
OROGENIC SEDIMENT PROVENANCE
tic suites deposited in comparable geodynamic settings or for inferring compositional modifications
caused by intense weathering in hot humid climates or diagenesis.
High-resolution bulk petrography data were collected by the Gazzi-Dickinson method (Ingersoll et
al. 1984; Garzanti and Vezzoli 2003) on river and
beach sands derived from single homogeneous orogenic domains (first- to second-order sampling
scales of Ingersoll 1990). Further quantitative information on heavy-mineral assemblages is provided in Garzanti and Andò (2007b).
Magmatic Arc Provenances.
Volcanic detritus
from basaltic, andesitic, and rhyodacitic lavas and
ignimbrites representing the arc cover consists of
volcanic lithic grains, plagioclase, and pyroxenes
(fig. 3G, Undissected Magmatic Arc Provenance;
Marsaglia and Ingersoll 1992). Plutonic detritus
from diorite-granodiorite batholiths representing
the plutonic roots of the arc massif chiefly includes
quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, and mainly bluegreen hornblende (figs. 3F, 4D, Dissected Magmatic
Arc Provenance). The ideal compositional trend recorded by terrigenous sequences accumulated in
forearc and other arc-related basins during unroofing of the arc massif is, therefore, characterized by
the progressive increase of quartz, K-feldspar, and
blue-green hornblende at the expense of volcanic
lithic grains and pyroxenes (Dickinson 1985; Garzanti and Andò 2007b).
Ophiolite Provenance.
Tectonically accreted or
obducted sections of oceanic lithosphere, which escaped subduction and orogenic metamorphism,
shed mafic to ultramafic detritus with peculiar petrographic and mineralogical features (Nichols et al.
1991). Distinct signatures characterize sediments
supplied during unroofing of progressively deeper
stratigraphic levels of the multilayered oceanic
lithosphere. Pillow lavas and sheeted dikes of the
upper crust shed lathwork volcanic to altered diabase lithic grains and clinopyroxene or low-grade
minerals grown during oceanic metamorphism
(e.g., actinolite and epidote). Orthopyroxene-phyric
325
boninite grains may be common in detritus from
suprasubduction-zone ophiolites (fig. 5D; Bloomer
et al. 1995; Garzanti et al. 2000). Plutonic rocks of
the lower crust supply cumulate, gabbro, and plagiogranite rock fragments, calcic plagioclase, diopsidic clinopyroxene, and green/brown hornblende;
hypersthene grains may reflect the hydrous, arcrelated character of late-stage magmatic source
rocks. Serpentinized mantle harzburgites supply
lizardite-serpentinite grains with pseudomorphic
cellular texture, enstatitic orthopyroxene, olivine,
and rare chrome spinel (figs. 3E, 5E; Garzanti et al.
2002b).
Axial Belt Provenance. Detritus supplied by the
axial pile of neometamorphic nappes representing
the central backbone of collision orogens is influenced by several factors, including metamorphic
grade of source rocks and relative abundance of continental versus oceanic protoliths. Metasedimentary cover nappes shed lithic to quartzolithic detritus, including metapelite, metapsammite, and
metacarbonate grains of various ranks (figs. 3A, 4B,
5A); only amphibolite-facies metasediments supply
abundant heavy minerals (e.g., almandine garnet,
staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, and diopsidic clinopyroxene). Continental basement nappes shed
hornblende-rich quartzofeldspathic detritus (figs.
3B, 4A). Largely retrogressed blueschist to eclogitefacies metaophiolites supply albite, metabasite,
and foliated antigorite-serpentinite (serpentine
schist) grains (fig. 4C), along with abundant heavy
minerals (e.g., epidote, zoisite, clinozoisite, actinolitic to barroisitic amphiboles, glaucophane, omphacitic clinopyroxene, and lawsonite).
Increasing metamorphic grade and/or deeper tectonostratigraphic level of source rocks may be reflected by (a) increasing rank of metamorphic rock
fragments (as indicated by progressive development
of schistosity and growth of micas and other index
minerals; metamorphic index of Garzanti and Vezzoli 2003), (b) increasing feldspars, (c) increasing
heavy-mineral concentration (heavy-mineral concentration index of Garzanti and Andò 2007a), (d)
Figure 3. Detrital modes of modern sands from the Apenninic thin-skinned orogen. Shown are river and beach
samples derived from one single geological domain or subdomain (Garzanti et al. 2002a; first-order sampling scale
of Ingersoll 1990). Also shown are fields for the 10 largest rivers on each side of the orogen (E. Garzanti, unpublished
data; second-order sampling scale of Ingersoll 1990). All of these carry recycled detritus of clastic wedge provenance,
associated with lithic sedimentary detritus of undissected continental block provenance (Adriatic rivers draining the
pro side of the orogen) or with feldspatholithic to arkosic detritus of magmatic arc provenance (Thyrrhenian rivers
draining the retro side of the orogen). Detritus from remnants of the Alpine subduction complex and axial belt are
locally dominant (Northern Apennines and Calabria, respectively). Petrographic parameters, symbols, provenance
fields, and confidence regions about the mean as in figure 2. Scale bar p 250 m; all photos with crossed polars.
Journal of Geology
OROGENIC SEDIMENT PROVENANCE
increasing hornblende, changing progressively in
color from blue/green to green/brown (hornblende
color index of Garzanti et al. 2004b), and (e) successive appearance of chloritoid, staurolite, kyanite, fibrolitic, and prismatic sillimanite (metasedimentary minerals index of Garzanti and Andò
2007b).
Continental Block Provenance.
Allochthonous
platform to pelagic strata, representing the tectonically dismembered remnants of sedimentary successions originally deposited on a continental paleomargin, supply diverse sedimentary to low-rank
metasedimentary grains (e.g., limestone, dolostone,
chert, shale, slate, and metacarbonate; figs. 3H, 4F;
fig. 5B, 5C, Undissected Continental Block Provenance), locally associated with quartz, feldspars,
or volcanic/metavolcanic rock fragments recycled
from interbedded siliciclastic or volcaniclastic
units. Tectonically imbricated basement units shed
quartzolithic to quartzofeldspathic sands with micas, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, hornblende, epidote, or pyroxenes (fig. 4E, Dissected
Continental Block Provenance).
Detritus supplied by paleomargin remnants incorporated within thick-skinned thrust belts varies
markedly during unroofing of deep-seated basement rocks. Heavy-mineral concentration progressively increases, and detrital modes ideally change
from lithic sedimentaclastic or locally sedimentaclastic-volcaniclastic (cover sequences) to quartzolithic, quartzofeldspathic, and feldspathic metamorphiclastic signatures (greenschist-facies to
granulite-facies basement units; Garzanti et al.
2006). Instead, thin-skinned orogens associated
with westward subduction zones mostly incorporate cover strata, which invariably supply lithic
sedimentary detritus (with various amounts of recycled quartz).
Clastic Wedge Provenance.
Sand recycled from
fluvial to turbiditic foreland-basin, foredeep, or
remnant-ocean-basin clastic sequences tend to reproduce the composition of orogen-derived (and
thus typically quartzolithic; Dickinson 1985) parent sandstones, generally with significant addition
of labile mudrock grains (fig. 3C, 3D; fig. 4G; Cav-
327
azza et al. 1993; Fontana et al. 2003). Because unstable minerals are extensively dissolved during
diagenesis of parent sandstones, recycled heavymineral assemblages include only stable to ultrastable species and have very low concentrations
(Garzanti et al. 2002a; Garzanti and Andò 2007a).
Composite Orogenic Provenances
Complex orogenic belts may include all three
kinds of provenance in subparallel linear belts
which may jointly contribute mixed detritus to
varied successor basins. Arc-derived detritus
may also be incorporated into such mixed suites.
(Dickinson and Suczek 1979, p. 2176)
In order to illustrate how primary provenances
may combine in different scenarios of plate convergence and give rise to composite orogenic provenances, we follow an exemplary rather than exhaustive approach. We describe the signatures of
sediments supplied by a large subduction complex
(Indo-Burman Ranges and Andaman Islands), by a
thin-skinned orogen produced by westward subduction (Apennines), and by three types of thickskinned composite orogens produced by eastward
subduction of continental-beneath-oceanic (Oman
obduction orogen), oceanic-beneath-continental
(Andean cordillera), and continental-beneath-continental lithosphere (Alpine and Himalayan collision orogens).
Detritus from the Indo-Burman-Andaman Subduction
Complex. Subduction complexes large enough to
be exposed subaerially and become significant
sources of terrigenous detritus are typically formed
by tectonic accretion above trenches choked with
thick sections of remnant-ocean turbidites (Ingersoll et al. 2003). This is the case of the outer ridge
extending from the Indo-Burman Ranges to offshore Sumatra, which largely consists of accreted
abyssal-plain sediments ultimately derived from
the rising Himalayas and locally overthrust by volcaniclastic and ophiolitic forearc sequences (Curray
2005; Allen et al., forthcoming). Modern sands from
the Indo-Burman Ranges and Andaman Islands con-
Figure 4. Detrital modes of modern sands derived from the Alpine collision orogen. Shown are river samples derived
from one single geological domain or subdomain (Garzanti et al. 2004b, 2006). Major rivers (Rhône, Rhein, Inn,
Salzach, Mur, Drau, Adige, and Po) carry mixed detritus mostly supplied by axial belt neometamorphic rocks and by
continental block paleometamorphic and sedimentary rocks in various proportions. Petrographic parameters, symbols,
provenance fields, and confidence regions about the mean as in figure 2. Profile modified after Polino et al. (2002).
Scale bar p 250 m; all photos with crossed polars.
328
E. GARZANTI ET AL.
sist of quartz and feldspars recycled from turbiditic
sandstones, with various amounts of shale/slate
grains shed from turbiditic mudrocks (clastic wedge
provenance). Ultramafic and mafic detritus is supplied locally from accreted forearc ophiolites (ophiolite provenance). Additional volcanic detritus and
chert grains are recycled from arc-derived and deepwater sediments of the forearc basin (fig. 6).
Detritus from the Apenninic Thin-skinned Orogen.
Modern sands from the Apennines are derived from
diverse source rocks, including pelagic cherty limestones and carbonate platforms of the Apulian paleomargin (undissected continental block provenance), foredeep turbidites accreted along the pro
side of the orogen (clastic wedge provenance), and
volcanic or locally plutonic arc rocks exposed along
its retro side (magmatic arc provenance). Because
westward Apenninic subduction started in the late
Paleogene along the retro side of eastward Alpine
subduction (Doglioni et al. 1998), the composite
Apenninic orogen is capped by the proto-Alpine
subduction complex, including remnant-ocean turbidites and accreted ophiolites, and incorporates
boudinaged greenschist-facies to amphibolitefacies remnants of the Alpine axial belt (fig. 3). Because of modest tectonic uplift, erosional unroofing
is limited and the spatial distribution of detrital
signatures is largely controlled by geological inheritance (Garzanti et al. 2002a).
Detritus from the Oman Obduction Orogen. Modern sands from the Oman obduction orogen are
mainly derived from mafic and ultramafic rocks
occupying the highest structural position of the tectonic pile. Sedimentary rock fragments, subordinate quartz, and metamorphic detritus are supplied
by frontally accreted to deeply subducted continental margin rocks exposed in tectonic windows
(fig. 5; Garzanti et al. 2002b). Where and when erosion bites into deeper structural levels, detritus of
ophiolite provenance is thus mixed with, and finally ideally replaced by, detritus of continental
block and axial belt provenances.
Detritus from the Andean Cordillera.
Modern
sands from the Andes show a marked asymmetry.
Volcano-plutonic detritus is dominant along the
pro side of the cordillera, whereas quartzolithic to
quartzose detritus with abundant metamorphic
lithic grains characterize its retro side (fig. 7; Potter
1994). Sediments in the Peru-Chile Trench range
from undissected-arc provenance adjacent to areas
of active volcanism, to transitional-arc and dissected-arc provenances where the batholithic roots
of the inactive arc massif have been uplifted and
widely exposed along the Cordillera Occidental
(Yerino and Maynard 1984; Thornburg and Kulm
1987). Sediments shed by metamorphic to granitoid
basement rocks and Paleozoic to Mesozoic strata
of the Cordillera Oriental and Subandean thrust
belt display continental block provenance and
are invariably mixed with subordinate volcanoplutonic detritus from the arc massif (DeCelles and
Hertel 1989). Recycling of weathered orogenic detritus (clastic wedge provenance) leads to a marked
increase in quartz across subequatorial lowlands
(Johnsson et al. 1988).
Detritus from the Alpine and Himalayan Collision Orogens. Modern sands from the Alps and the Him-
alayas chiefly include quartz, feldspars, metamorphic rock fragments, micas, and amphibolegarnet-epidote heavy-mineral assemblages, reflecting major supply from partially retrogressed highpressure (e.g., Penninic Domain) to high-temperature (e.g., Greater Himalaya) neometamorphic
rocks of the high-topography and rapidly exhumed
axial belt. Similar signatures, however, may characterize first-cycle detritus from paleometamorphic basements representing remnants of the
continental margins caught in collision, as well as
polycyclic detritus recycled from orogen-derived
clastic wedges accreted along the mountain front
(fig. 4; Garzanti et al. 2004b, 2006).
In foreland-basin to remnant-ocean-basin successions, neometamorphic detritus of axial belt provenance can be differentiated from paleometamorphic detritus of continental block provenance
only by using appropriate detrital geochronology
techniques (Najman 2006). As a further complexity,
allochthonous remnants of continental paleomargins not only are commonly overthrust by the axial
belt and confined to external parts of the orogen
(Helvetic Domain, Lesser Himalaya) but may also
lie structurally above it, as a “tectonic lid” (Austroalpine Domain, Tethys Himalaya). External
belts may directly face foreland basins on both sides
of the orogen, where the axial belt is narrow and
topographically subdued (e.g., Maritime and Eastern Alps).
The composition of foreland-basin sediments
may change from volcaniclastic, ophioliticlastic, or
sedimentaclastic/low-rank metasedimentaclastic
in early syn-collisional stages, when detritus from
volcanic arcs and subduction complexes may be
dominant (“Taiwan stage”; Dorsey 1988; Garzanti
et al. 1996; Najman and Garzanti 2000), to highrank neometamorphiclastic at later collisional
stages, when the axial metamorphic core of the orogen starts to be rapidly exhumed (White et al. 2002).
Focused erosion of rapidly uplifted gneiss domes
may then produce huge volumes of hornblende-rich
quartzofeldspathic detritus that typically exceed
Journal of Geology
OROGENIC SEDIMENT PROVENANCE
329
Figure 5. Detrital modes of modern sands from peri-Arabian obduction orogens. Shown are river and beach samples
derived from one single geological domain or subdomain (Garzanti et al. 2000, 2002a). Crust-derived feldspatholithic
detritus to mantle-derived lithic detritus of ophiolite provenance is shed by the oceanic upper plate, whereas sedimentary to neometamorphic metasedimentary and metavolcanic detritus of continental block to axial belt provenances is shed by the continental lower plate. Petrographic parameters, symbols, and confidence regions about the
mean as in figure 2. Scale bar p 250 m; all photos with crossed polars.
the storage capacity of associated foreland basins
and can even reach totally unrelated sedimentary
basins thousands of kilometers away (Ingersoll et
al. 2003; Garzanti et al. 2004a, 2004b). Volcanic or
ophiolitic detritus becomes volumetrically insig-
nificant, but contributions from dissected-arc massifs may remain locally prominent (Garzanti et al.
2005). Because of the progressive lateral growth of
external belts, which shield the foreland basin from
axial belt detritus, compositional trends may revert
330
E. GARZANTI ET AL.
Figure 6. Detrital modes of modern sands from the Indo-Burman-Andaman subduction complex. Shown are single
samples from major rivers and beaches (E. Garzanti, unpublished data). Recycled detritus of clastic wedge provenance
includes various amounts of shale/slate lithic grains eroded from turbiditic mudrocks. Sands from the Indo-Burman
Ranges include minor volcanic-arc detritus and, invariably, negligible chert (Lv/QFL% p 3 Ⳳ 2, Lch/QFL% p
0.5 Ⳳ 0.5). Ophiolitic detritus is shed locally from forearc slivers found at the top of the orogenic stack in the Andaman
Islands, where beach sands may locally contain chert (symbols have thick outline if Lch/QFL% p 5–10 and
Lch/L% p 10–15 and very thick outline for the only chert-rich sample where Lch/QFL% p 38 and Lch/L% p 68).
Petrographic parameters, symbols, provenance fields, and confidence regions about the mean as in figure 2.
in time to sedimentaclastic/low-rank metasedimentaclastic (White et al. 2002). Detrital signatures
of foreland-basin sediments are controlled by the
entry points of high-rank neometamorphiclastic
detritus carried by major rivers draining the axial
belt and thus vary irregularly along strike and are
strongly dependent on drainage changes (Muttoni
et al. 2003; Najman et al. 2003).
Conclusions
Provenance interpretations for sedimentary assemblages can be addressed most effectively in
the context of global paleogeographic patterns
inferred from paleotectonic reconstructions and
can be used to test such reconstructions. (Dickinson 1988, p. 22)
Orogens formed at convergent plate margins, representing topographically elevated sources of detritus, are composite geological structures of great
complexity, including diverse rock units assembled in various ways by geodynamic processes.
Orogenic sediments thus embrace a large range of
mixed signatures, including variable proportions
of both first-cycle and multiciycle detritus from
neometamorphic, paleometamorphic, sedimentary, and igneous rocks. Unraveling the provenance of orogen-derived terrigenous successions is
consequently an arduous task that requires a detailed but, at the same time, simple and flexible
reference model.
In order to establish a classification of orogenic
belts and orogenic sediment provenances, we reduce
the numerous possible plate interactions observed
along subduction zones by selecting a limited number of variables (westward vs. eastward subduction
polarity; oceanic vs. continental downgoing and
overriding plates). Eight possible scenarios of plate
convergence are thus recognized, each characterized
by the tectonic assembly of a distinct type of composite orogen (fig. 1). As a further and most important simplification, we represent the structure of
orogenic belts as a hierarchy of genetically associated rock complexes generated by tectonic and magmatic processes along subduction zones. The diversity of composite orogens is thus seen as resulting
from juxtaposition and superposition of a limited
number of subparallel geological domains.
Five types of such elongated orogenic domains
Journal of Geology
OROGENIC SEDIMENT PROVENANCE
331
Figure 7. Detrital modes of modern sands from the Andean cordillera. Feldspatholithic suites of magmatic arc
provenance characterize the west-facing pro side of the orogen (modes of deep-sea samples after Yerino and Maynard
1984 and Thornburg and Kulm 1987). Instead, quartzolithic sands of continental block to clastic wedge provenance,
showing increasing degree of chemical weathering toward lower equatorial latitudes (Johnsson et al. 1988), characterize
the orogen’s east-facing retro side (modes of river samples after DeCelles and Hertel 1989). Petrographic parameters,
symbols, provenance fields, and confidence regions about the mean as in figure 2.
are identified as the primary building blocks of
composite orogenic prisms: (1) magmatic arcs (autochthonous or allochthonous arc crust), (2) obducted or accreted ophiolites (allochthonous oceanic lithosphere), (3) neometamorphic axial belts
(subducted continental margin crust or adjacent
oceanic lithosphere), (4) paleomargin remnants (allochthonous continental crust), and (5) orogenic
clastic wedges (allochthonous foreland-basin, foredeep, or remnant-ocean-basin fills).
Detritus produced by erosion of each of these
primary orogenic domains is characterized by specific detrital modes, heavy-mineral assemblages,
and unroofing trends, which can be predicted and
modeled. The five primary orogenic domains thus
correspond to five (four chiefly first-cycle and one
polycyclic) primary types of sediment provenances; this refines and expands on the classic
model proposed by the Dickinson school in the
late 1970s (fig. 2). As a final step, the complexity
of detrital signatures produced by each type of
composite orogen as a whole may be represented
as resulting from a limited number of combinations of the five primary provenances in various
proportions (figs. 3–7).
This relatively simple scheme is flexible enough
to describe the complete range of mixed detrital
signatures observed along modern subduction
zones from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian and
Pacific oceans. It is thus proposed here as a conceptual tool to model the composition of sediments
produced by erosional denudation of composite
orogenic systems and to predict the evolution of
detrital modes and heavy-mineral assemblages as
recorded in space and time by clastic successions
deposited in arc-related, foreland, foredeep, and
remnant-ocean sedimentary basins.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work benefited through the years from numerous fruitful discussions with, and precious advice from, W. Dickinson, R. Ingersoll, Y. Najman,
A. Basu, S. Critelli, P. DeCelles, A. Di Giulio, D.
Fontana, B. Lombardo, C. Malinverno, M. Mange,
M. Minoli, R. Valloni, H. von Eynatten, G. Weltje,
and G. Zuffa. Careful, stimulating reviews by R.
Ingersoll and P. Cawood are gratefully acknowledged.
332
E. GARZANTI ET AL.
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