Download alexander ii`s foreign policy

An overview of the 19th century
*The Vienna conference in 1814-1815 shapes
Europe in a new way. The conference was held
after the Napoleon wars in order to establish
peace in Europe.
*Main contenders were: Russia, France,UK,
Austria,Prussia.
*Main points decided during the conference:
1.Europe should be a peaceful area (preserve
peace).
2.Restore the old order i.e the Bourbons were
introduced in France. This led to the fact that
Europe was following conservatist ideals.
Why this ideology?
This was the ideology that suited the leaders
of Europe the best. It´s easier to control the
people with conservatism than with any other
ideology.
Results of the Vienna conference: Peace for 40
years but many upheavels and riots.
*The 19th century is known as the century of
ideologies. Ie. Socialism, liberalism,
conservatism played a big role during this
century. Another -ism that shaped Europe is
nationalism.
*Although the 19th century can be seen as a
peaceful century one mustn´t forget that some
riots almost succeded in getting rid of the ruling
class(i.e ”the crazy year” 1848)
*The power balance (Vienna conference) ended
during the late 19th century when both Italy and
Germany was unified.
*During the 1880´s Germany became number one
in the world (industry).Otto von Bismarck and
Wilhelm I are the main persons behind this.
*Btw 1870-1914 Europe is starting a imperialistic
time era.Most part of Africa becomes part of
either GB or France. This continues all the way
up the 1970´s when the last colony was set free.
*During the last years of the century powerful
nations are starting to build alliances with each
other
WWI.
*In the Balkan peninsula new nations are forming
independent states. This area is unstable and can
also be seen as a reason for WWI.
*”The sick man of Europe”=ottoman empire is
falling apart. New countries erupts and others go
under.
*Russia ”want´s to protect it´s fellow
slavs”(Serbia).Actually Russia want´s to take
over parts of the falling ottoman empire.This
action leads to the Crimean War(1853-56).
GB and France beats Russia and also declares
war on Finland.(Florence Nightingale becomes
known from this war).
Italian unification(1850-71)
Main charachters: Camillo di Cavour, Giuseppe
Garibaldi,Victor Emmanuel II, Giuseppe Mazzini.
What were these persons role in the unification
process?
Main events:When ,who, what?
Reasons to unification:Why did it happen?
Consequences of the unification:What
happened afterwards?
*In 1852 Cavour becomes prime minister of
Piedmont. Problems: Italy consisted of ten
separate states.The revolutions of 1848-49 had all
failed.Italy consisted of mainly peasants(90%).
*Cavour´s plan was to set Piedmont at the head
ofa movement that would exclude Austria from
Italy. This, as Cavour himself knew, had to be
done with skillful diplomacy. Why was the
support from other countries so important to
Cavour? Otherwise ”Italy”would be crushed.
Therefore Cavour wanted to involve European
negotiation and understanding in order to achieve
success. In 1856 (Congress of Paris) Cavour
realizes that Napoleon III was intrested in Italian
nationalism and might be induced to support
Piedmont.
*In 1859 Cavour was to bring the war about in
such a way as to make Austria appear as the
aggressor.This was done by mobilizing troops on
the border with Lombardy.After the battles of
Solferino and Magenta had been won Nap.III
suddenly pulls out. This leads to the resignation
of Cavour.
*Meanwhile revolutions took place in Parma,
Modena and Tuscany(demanded a union with
Piedmont)
the royal rulers could only be
restored by force and Austria had lost control of
Northern and Central Italy.
*Cavour gets the support of both GB and
France(back in office in 1860 ,men in both
countries government that are in favour of Italian
unification). Even somekind of rivalry btw the
above which gives Italy a benefit.
*Mazzini becomes afraid of the success Cavour
has. Therefore he wants to have some influence
of the southern parts (together with Garribaldi).
*Revolution in Sicily in 1860 that is a successful
one. Garibaldi with his redshirts take over Sicily
in two months.
*After this incident both Cavour and
Mazzini+Garibaldi took more and more land
(Mazzini takes over Naples and The Piedmontese
moves closer and closer to the Papal states).
*The kingdom of Italy is proclaimed with Victor
Emmanuel as it´s ruler in March 1861.(Cavour
dies the same year)
*Bad relations with the Papacy doesn´t make
Italy totally unified until 1871(for instance the
power question).
German unification 1850-1871
*In the 1850´s the German problem was still
unsolved. Germany had at this point indefensible
frontiers and was surrounded by great powers.
*Less than a third of the Austrian empire was
within the German Confederation. Still the
Austrians did have a lot of influence over this
area.
*Two factors that can be seen as reasons for the
unification:
-Prussia was in the position of a leading European
power.
-The Zollverein(customs union) made Prussia an
important country both politically and
economically.
*Frederick William IV was a conservative
ruler(not a very liberal constituion was granted ).
In 1858 William(brother) became regent and in
1861he became king a.k.a William I.William I is
much more liberal and wants to bring about
changes.
*Otto von Bismarck became the most important
figure in the unification process. He was also
known for attacking his opponents with offensive
sarcasm in powerful speeches.In 1862 Bismarck
becomes the head of the Prussian government.
The Danish War 1864
*After 1850`s Austria had made efforts to
increase her power in Germany.
*In 1863 the Danish government proposed to
incorporate the duchies(Schleswig and Holstein)
with Denmark.This led to german critizism.
THE DIPLOMATIC SITUATION
Britain supported a strong Germany that
could balance out the French, the traditional
enemies.
Russia and Prussia common
interest in controlling Poles and Lithuanians,
Austria and Russia had different ones,
particularly after Crimean. Russia was too
weak to stop Prussia after the Crimean, and
was screwed re. AII’s reforms.
French
unwittingly helped Prussia also. Meanwhile
Austria was always bound to come into
conflict with Russia over issues relating to
the Balkans
WHY UNIFY GERMANY
Inevitable, take opportunity of the diplomatic
situation above, it could be on the middle
classes terms, but they wanted a constitution
also, which didn’t suit the Kaiser or Bismarck,
who knew that the liberals would settle for
unification. He felt that by unifying Germany
he could get rid of the liberal threat to the
system. ‘I prefer to make revolutions rather
than be destroyed by them’.
1864 WAR V DENMARK
King Christian 9th annexes SchleswigHostein in 1864. This took Bismarck by
surprise. Germany, including Austria, calls
for war and the Prussians have a swift
victory. S-H remains German, Bismarck
shows off his new army and he becomes
more popular after defending the honour of
the German people. Public opinion was
firmly with him. At the convention of Gastein
in 1865, it was agreed that S-H was to be
jointly governed by Austria and Prussia.
1866 WAR V AUSTRIA
Much more carefully planned. Bismarck had
isolated Austria with a series of secret
treaties. After the 1863 Polish revolt, the
Russians were not going to come in on
Austria’s side, in August 1865, Bismarck
visited Biarritz and gets Napolean III’s
agreement to stay neutral, in exchange for
Luxembourg. He also expected a slow war
that would weaken both nations, so didn’t
want to intervene. Early 1866 signed treaty
with Italy meaning that they would also attack
at the start of the war. Hungarians unofficial
blocked Austria. Quick victory, won at Battle
of Konigsgratz (S. Moravia). Austria are
beaten but not destroyed as Bismarck will
want their support again soon.
1870 WAR V FRANCE
Not planned at all. France and Prussia not
getting along as Luxembourg was not
handed over.
1870 Spanish approach
Prussian prince to become new king,
Bismarck says yes, ally against France,
French realised what was happening and
demanded the candidate be withdrawn. Ems
telegram- supposedly an apology was edited
by Bismarck, who made it more ‘strongly
worded’. War breaks out in August. The
three southern German states also fight for
German honour- despite the Kulturkampf
campaign against the Catholic Church.
Made the decision about whether to involve
them in Germany for him. Decisive Battle at
Sedan. Also annexes Alsace Lorraine-public
opinion and mountain borders. Bad move,
as French want to get it back. Unification
was achieved, therefore by ‘Blood and iron’.
DRIEKAISERBUND 1873
Bismarck had to diffuse tension between A-H
and Russia over the Balkans, and try to
isolate the French, and block any link
between them and Russia.
This treaty
seemed to fulfil all of those aims, leaving the
French isolated, despite the fact that these
complex alliances he formed seemed to not
last long or really mean all that much. It also
meant that he didn’t have to choose between
A-H and Russia.
FRENCH CRISIS 1875
French recovery was very speedy. Bismarck
began to hint that a war against the French
was planned, and hoped that this might
make them retreat into diplomatic obscurity
once again. Britain, Italy and Russia all
demanded that he back down, and the
appeals for support from the other major
European nations by the French went some
way to bringing them out of isolation.
THE BALKANS 1875-78
Russian interest(Pan Slavism), encouraging
Slav nationalism, in conflict with A-H policy,
as an empire full of different nationalities
where nationalism would cause serious
problems. Tension came to a head in July
1875. Bosnia-Herzegovinian and Serbian
slavs rebelled against their Turkish rulers, a
turkish power collapse would have led to a
power vacuum which A-H and Russia would
obviously both have tried to fill. Russians
supported the Slavs and defeated Turkey in
Jan 1878.
Bismarck had offered the
Russians some support, but would not
commit to either A-H or Russia if a war were
to break out.
POST BALKAN WAR TREATIES
TREATY OF SAN STEPHANO(March 1878)
Imposed by Russia on Turkey following the
war.
European Turkey reduced through
enlargement
of
Bulgaria,
Romania,
Montenegro, Serbia.
Bulgaria got sea
access, this is crucial because at this stage
Bulgaria had very close ties with Russia.
The Austrians thought that this Treaty was
too kind to Russia.
CONGRESS OF BERLIN Reversed parts of
the treaty. (June-July 1878). Probably a
short term success, diffusing some tension.
Russia lost a lot of what it had gained, strains
were put on the Dreikaiserbund, and it
signalled the beginning of the end of the
‘Bismarckian system’.Africa is being divided
by the major countries.
THE DUAL ALLIANCE 1879
A-H and Germany. Led to two nations
fighting on same side in WW1. Like all of
Bismarck’s Treaties, it was only a short
contract, it is defensive and anti-Russian.
France made a treaty with Russia, and
Europe began to take sides.
Britain
remained in ‘splendid isolation’. May have
tried to scare Russia into isolation or into
improving relations with Germany. In 1882
Italy also joined in. Was beginning to draw
Germany into the Balkan issues.
SECOND BALKAN CRISIS 1885-1886
Austria almost goes to war against Russia
over Bulgaria, but Bismarck says that
Germany will not support as it was not part of
the Dual Alliance. Austria backs down,
humiliation.
REDUCTION OF TENSION IN THE
BALKANS In 1887, Russia, A-H and
Germany signed the Re-insurance treaty. In
1897, Austria and Russia agreed not to be
aggressive in the Balkans, and Russia
adopted a steady expansionist policy in Asia
whilst Germany tried to take over parts of
Africa. Meant that Germany no longer had to
decide between the two, and could still
arbitrate over European affairs, and that
France could be kept out even longer.
DETERIORATING
RELATIONS
WITH
RUSSIA In 1890, Bismarck was sacked.
When, in 1892, Russia approached Germany
about signing the Re-insurance treaty,
Germany refused. No-one was capable of
operating the Bismarckian system of treaties.
In 1894, Russia instead made a treaty with
France, who begin to invest large sums of
money in Russia. This brings France out of
isolation.
THE ROLE OF BRITAIN
Had more in common with the Germans
during the period 1894-1914 in a way. After
the treaties was the only unattached country
in Europe. In 1898 come into conflict with
the French at Fashoda, then in 1902 form a
Treaty with Japan which is an anti-Russian
treaty.
After the Russo-Japanese War,
Britain and Russia can be on better terms. In
1904 signed the 1904 Entente Cordiale,
which began to form links between France
and Britain. Wi ll come into conflict with
Germany who begin their Weltpolitik policy,
with efforts to expand their empire in Africa.
In 1906 launched the dreadnought which
made the rest of the Fleet obsolete and
began the Naval race with Britain. In 1909,
Britain announced that it wanted to build 5
battle ships for each of Germany’s 3. Put
immense strains on resources, particularly in
1912 when Germany launches a 3rd battle
squadron. Haldane mission, British minister
sent to Germany to try to freeze the arms
race. Germany agree on the condition that
Britain remain neutral in any future wars.
Solved when British Mediterranean fleet
moves to the North Sea, and the French
channel fleet moved to the Mediterranean.
Important in bringing Britain into the war on
the French side.
BUCHLAU AND THE BALKANS
At Buchlau in 1908, Austrians say they want
to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina which annoys
the Serbians, and in return Russia say they
want Med access through the Dardanelles.
In 1909, A-H go ahead and annex B-H but
Dardanelles issue has not been resolved.
Russia feels double crossed. This time,
against Bismarckian policy, Germany says it
will give unequivocal support to Austria
against Russia who back down, this time.
COLONIAL DISPUTES
Britain has Egypt and Sudan. France has
Tunisia and wants Morocco, this would give
them control over the Med. In the 1904
Entente cordiale agreement, they agree that
Britain can have Egypt and France can have
Morocco.
In 1905, the Kaiser visited
Morocco, an indication that he wanted to
break up this relationship and block a French
takeover. In 1906, the major European
powers meet
to discuss the future of
Morocco. All of them supported the French,
including Italy, Spain, Russia, Great Britain,
the USA support the French. This whole
issue starts the military conversations, which
begin to commit Britain to joining the war on
the side of France. In May 1911, the French
occupied Fez, an indication that they were
about to take it over completely, rather than
having it as a protectorate. Germany saw
another opportunity to have a go at the
French. They sent a gunboat to Agadir,
claiming that it was in the port to protect
German interests.
This resurrected the
Naval dispute, and Britain issued a statement
supporting the French on the 21st of June
1911. A formal protectorate was established
in March 1912. There was a serious lack of
Russian interest in the whole thing, partly
because they had a screwed country and
partly because this part of the world wasn’t
really important to them. This worsened
relations between Britain and Germany
though, and perhaps even made war more
inevitable. It was also another sign of a
formal commitment between the British and
the French.
THE BALKANS 1912-1913
In 1912 a Balkan league had been formed,
including the nations of Serbia, Bulgaria,
Greece and Montenegro. They all fought a
war against Turkey in 1912. By 1913, the
Turkish empire was all but defeated, and the
Balkan league was also beginning to split up
as the nations began to fight amongst
themselves over what they had won.
Bulgaria lost out the most, with the Treaty of
Bucharest in August 1913 taking away much
of their territory, whilst Serbia was fast
affirming itself as the dominant force in the
Balkans, after Buchlau, they were now more
of a Russian protectorate than an Austrian
one. The French were also giving more
support to the Russians over these Balkan
issues, and Pointcare basically handed the
Russians a blank cheque in October 1913. If
Britain had made its position clearer would
Germany have been less arrogant and
aggressive?
GERMAN REICHSTAG ELECTIONS
In 1912, reflecting the industrial nature of
Germany and the size of its working class,
the SPD became the largest party in the
Reichstag, and threatened to cut the powers
of the conservative parliament. They wanted
to reform the government, giving people a
real constitution rather than rule by the
Kaiser and the Chancellor. The Kaiser and
the Chancellor decided that a war was
needed to unite the people behind the
present government and forget about the
socialist demands. Internal conflicts would
be suspended, or so went the theory.
In 1912, the military top brass met in
Potsdam to discuss this proposal. There
was a feeling that Russia was catching up,
and that by 1916 (as Von Moltke said) they
may not be able to defeat them so easily.
The Russians were also in the process of
refitting their artillery squads. The general
feeling is that mid 1914 would be the best
time for war. Everyone gets caught up in the
patriotism.
THE JULY CRISIS
28th July-assasination of Franz Ferdinand
The Austrian cabinet meets and is
undecided. Some wanted to punish the
Serbs, some thought this would destroy the
empire, and that Russia would join in.
5th July-Hoyos mission. Hungarian minister
goes to Potsdam and asks whether the
Germans will support them. Kaiser says do
it. There are three options:
Balkan War- Russia backs down as in
1909
Russia supports Serbia- this is what the
army was going for
Britain and France get involved, at this
stage the Kaiser wants to take on all of
them.
23rd July-ultimatum handed over to the
Serbs. The delay was due to the fact that
Pointcare was in St Petersburg before, also
had to get army ready for mobilisation. It had
actually been prepared by July 8th.
25th June-Serbians accepts almost all of the
terms. The military leadership was now in
charge, and the war was no longer about
Serbia
31st July- Russia mobilise, getting onto a war
footing. Germany says stop mobilisation or
we will declare war- hoping to look good,
perhaps to stop Britain from entering the war.
They seem to be not making the first move,
but records of meetings show that the
German command didn’t even want to wait
for the Russians. It had to be a war on two
fronts following the Franco-Russian entente
of 1894. The Schieffen plan kicked on on
August 4th, and Britain was fortunate in that
it had an excuse to join the war-was
committed, but the public didn’t know. After
Belgian invasion, they were justified. Each of
the nations are drawn in one by one.
SUMMARY OF THE CAUSES OF WW1
Balkans: Tension between A-H and Russia.
Buchlau v.important.
Colonial Disputes: Britain supports French,
both in conflict with Germany over North
Africa
Naval race: Tension between Germany and
Britain
Reichstag Elections: Germany needed to
inspire nationalism to stop the socialists
gaining too much support- they were waiting
for the right time for a war.
July Crisis: Draw all the countries into the
war.
German government manipulated the
situation, Bismarckian treaties started
problems.
EVENTS and POLICIES
ALEXANDER I: 1801-1825
AI was known for foreign policy, fights
Napoleon for 14 years, victorious, Russia is a
powerful and influential nation.
NICHOLAS I: 1825-1855
Extremely reactionary, revolutions in 1821,
1830, 1848. Fights Crimean War and is
losing when dies.
ALEXANDER II: 1855-1881.
Became Tsar aged 38. Military education,
political experience, seemed to be well
prepared for the job. Ideas moulded by the
events of 1848-i.e. riots, liberalism, unrest.
Made him more conservative, reactionary
and traditional. He was more humane ad
sensitive than his father.
Similar to
Gorbachev in some ways. Wants to reform
everything except the autocratic system,so is
basically doomed to failure. Mild reforms in
first year raised expectations. Tried to be
autocratic when autocratism is dying, gave
out freedom in very small doses, very naïve,
didn’t realise that repression only buys time
and didn’t judge the national mood very well.
PROBLEMS FACED IN 1855: Different
cultural groups and nationalities spread over
the country with communication difficulties.
Poor relations with countries on Western
borders. In arctic circle, so low agricultural
productivity with land that is frozen
throughout much of the year, as is the sea.
Agricultural nation, not industrialising, low
productivity, frequent land redistribution
leading to no innovation (odd system
whereby land is split between all of the
inheritors evenly, meaning that from
generation to generation the amount of land
available drops dramatically), huge debt,
expanding
population
with
landless
peasants. Crimean War, behind the western
powers in terms of technology and military
capablility. Ineffective and poorly trained
army. Noble officers and peasant squaddies.
25 years conscription. Conservative and
traditional peasants controlled by mir. Land
split repeatedly through the nobility.
Bureaucracy are extremely corrupt. Form
1/80th of the population (1 million of them in
1880).
SERFS:
Basically divided on geographical lines
i. State, pay by rent.
ii. Private, owned by landlord, works on his
land, pays by labour. Permission required
to get married. Can be exiled or forced to
join the army by landlord.
iii. 99% of land workers are serfs.
System ended in 1861. Ignorant and
illiterate, make up 80% of the population.
Russia is an agricultural nation, depends
on these groups.
Little migration,
traditional and conservative group. Loves
and wants his own land. Religious but
dislike church which teaches obedience.
Land was often redistributed and was
divided up into small strips so that each
family had some good fields and some
bad ones- this is also bad for production.
MIR:
Elder peasant group, ultra-conservative.
Landlord deals through the mir. Obeyed and
respected by the peasants. Used by the
nobles to communicate with the village
people. Looks after its interests but also
controls it.
More important than the
individual. The mir made all of the decisions
relating to the land.
RUSSIAN CLERGY:
Works with nobles .
Catechism, urged
obedience to Tsar. Church is viewed as an
oppressive thing by the peasants(orthodox
religion). A reactionary force, eastern form of
christianity.
EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS:
WHY: Catalyst of the Crimean War ‘War is
the locomotive of history’-the war exposes
Russian weaknesses in terms of military
strength as well as with industry and
agricultural production. Russia is behind the
West and it is a backwards country.
Economic reform before military reform.
The system is inefficient and the people are
conservative leading to low production.
Emancipation could have come earlier, were
it not for the attitude of the peasants, who
were extremely fatalistic and conservative.
They believed that the problems were on a
local scale, and that it was not a national
issue which needed to be dealt with centrally.
THE CONDITION AND STRUCTURE OF
THE RUSSIAN PEASANTRY was a crucial
factor in the weakness of the country. It is an
agricultural nation, and peasants make up
80% of the population, pay taxes and are
locked in serf system. They are vital since
they produce grain, the most valuable export.
Serfdom is bad because productivity was not
increasing with the population. This is a
major issue since more than half the
peasants are serfs. Poverty for the peasants
and debt for nobility were the results of this
ineffective system.
Did not encourage
innovation. Less stability, not enough land,
frequent peasant revolts. Serfs cannot leave
land
without
landlord’s
permission.
Dominated by the mir, who are extremely
conservative, as are the peasants. AII saw
the discontent in the countryside and realised
that emancipation had to be from above not
below
HOW WAS EMANCIPATION ACHIEVED?
Emancipation seemed progressive (this had
long since been the view of the intellectuals),
he had to use the defeat in the Crimean War
to underline the need for change. He argued
that if economic and social reform were to
occur, serfdom must end. Put full weight of
autocracy behind emancipation. The serfs
soon began to believe that emancipation was
about to occur, meaning that after a time
there was ‘no turning back’. March 1856
made speech to nobility to try and get them
onside. Most hoped that he would drop his
plans, but were convinced by the ‘from above
not below’ argument. Nov 1857 –plan of
action..
1861- Emancipation decree the
‘right of bondage’ was ‘forever abolished’.
Serfs to receive land from nobility, nobility to
receive
compensation
‘Redemption
payments’. Unwritten contract with Nobles,
convinced them that he was on their side.
Mir held land collectively. He used the fact
that there was serious unrest in the
countryside to convince the nobles that a
revolution could come from below. Serfs free
to move and trade.
RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION:
PEASANTS: Riots followed decree, in 1861
alone there were 499 cases of riots which
required army intervention to be stopped.
Peasants forced to pay over inflated
redemption payments (20% in the first year
then 49 annual payments with an interest
charge), but felt that the land rightfully
belonged to them. Wage labour turned out to
be the most effective, particularly in fertile
areas. 49 year Redemption payments were
too high, mir was a break on innovation,
industrial expansion not rapid enough to
accommodate landless peasants, the land
was apportioned unfairly, the process of land
transfer was too lengthy, money was pumped
into industry not modernisation. People paid
too much for bad land, particularly in non
black soil provinces
LANDLORDS: not content.
Landlord in
Poland got a worse deal, due to the 1863
revolt, with redemption payments here being
far lower. Began demise of nobility. In short,
too much for the nobility, not enough for the
radicals, whilst the serfs were angered at
being forced to pay redemption payments.
The nobility began to rapidly decline, as did
its ability to act as a stabilising force in
Russian society. Progress was made, but
when compared to the other nations of
Europe, Russia was still far behind.
DID
EMANCIPATION
CHANGE
ANYTHING?
Emancipation basically changed the legal
status of many peasants. It did not change
the way they farmed the land. The system
remained the same, with communal tender
and strip farming- a system which had
always worked ok because it was
implemented on a local scale, and the
country is not dependant on internal trade.
But emancipation also didn’t face the
peasant demands- they wanted the transfer
of land without being forced to pay
compensation. The fact that the population
was increasing so rapidly meant that the
impact of this lack of alteration to the system
was greater.
REASONS FOR POPULATION GROWTH
The Zemstva had brought about some public
health improvements in the provinces- there
was also a run of good weather and hence
better harvests. An unintended consequence
of redemption payments was that it
increased the population.
Villages were
taxed communally at this stage, and it was
left to the mir to hand over the taxes. The tax
burden could be decreased by forming more
households and by allowing earlier marriagethis leads to a rapid population expansion.
But the problem is that the system has not
modernised enough to deal with the
increasing demand.
OTHER REFORMS BY AII
MOTIVATION:
To maintain stability, to
modernise Russia and make it a world power
once again. Underlying motivation was the
need to modernise the army which had been
crushed in the Crimea. This was the catalyst
for reform. Also the need for internal reform
and modernisation. Political reform was not
included, although above all Alexander
wanted to remain in control without changing
his role. He was known as the Reforming
Tsar, and he played an important role in
pushing through these reforms, but he
refused to alter his own role at all.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT 1864:
MOTIVATION:
Felt
that
there
was
administrative inefficiency, but did not want to
decentralise too much since this would have
lessened his influence and rendered him less
powerful.
IMPLICATIONS: The decree establishing the
Zemstva was published in January 1864.
Locally elected councils with jurisdiction over
public education, health, local economic
development, services.
Liberals wanted
them to have real power, and they did, but
only over certain things. They did not have
power for example over taxes as AII thought
that this would undermine his own power.
45%
nobility,
40%
peasants,
15%
townspeople and clergy. 1870 saw a similar
urban system set up. Set up by Valuiev.
Two tier system, district and province. Could
always be overruled by the centre of the
party. They had no real powers and became
a forum for complaining, did ease the
governing of the provinces and performed
well in the famine. This and the legal reform
was not motivated by the military
imperatives. Their success demonstrated
that a central representative government
may also have been effective. Another
implication was that it raised literacy levels in
the provinces. In a village, if one person can
read then the village can read, so peasants
quickly start to formulate new ideas.
LEGAL REFORMS 1864:
MOTIVATION: Before 1864, there were
numerous different types of court with poorly
trained and often illiterate officials. Evidence
was presented in written form, with evidence
from the nobility given far more credence
than that of any other group. It was clear
that a fair and just system was necessary,
and that this could only be achieved through
reform.
IMPLICATIONS: Salaries set high to avoid
bribery and corruption. Public trials by jury,
appeal courts, oral evidence, JPs for 3 years,
judges nominated by Tsar, independent bar,
lots of lawyers trained.
Still some
imprisonment without trial, initial shortage of
well trained lawyers. Backfired as it was fair
to political prisoners and gave them a forum
to get publicity (eg Vera Zasulish trial in 1878
after which regular courts were not relied on
to deal with terrorist cases). The training of
lawyers and judges led to the creation of a
new very liberal and well educated class,
many of whom would go on to demand
political reform. They were a dangerous byproduct of the reforms.
MILITARY REFORM 1862:
MOTIVATION: Consumed 1/3rd of national
income yet still got wasted in Crimean,
shortcomings were exposed. Admin and
command
structure
inflexible
and
punishments in the army were severe and
barbaric. Conscription lasted 25 years, so it
was basically a life sentence.
IMPLICATIONS: Miliutin became Minster for
war in 1861 and sought to humanise the
military and improve its efficiency.. 1862 –
regional commands set up. 1863, capital
punishment ended, army schools set up in
1864. 1859 conscription period lessened to
just 16 years. The Prussian success helped
him to convince the sceptical nobles and
conservative military leaders that a well-led
modern army was necessary.
Russia
needed to protect itself and play a role in
diplomatic affairs- not really a success as
they got trashed in the Russo-Japanese war
and in WW1, however some improvements
had been made, as was demonstrated by the
performance of the army in the RussoTurkish war of 1878.
EDUCATIONAL REFORM:
MOTIVATION: Difficult balance had to be
struck, since AII aimed to educate the people
without causing them to think and question
his regime.
Up until 1861, strict and
repressive control had been maintained over
education.
Peasants would be more
effective with education, and industrial and
economic reform could be effected more
quickly with a well trained workforce.
IMPLICATIONS: Golvonin in 1861, primary
education set up in villages, X4 primary
schools 1961-1881. In 1862, schools were
placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Education rather than the chuch. Lead to
more literacy, secondary education was open
to all classes but most people could not
afford to go, not controlled by church. 1863
University Regulations allowed freedom of
expression
and
given
autonomy
in
administrative matters.
Outsiders were
permitted to attend lectures, foreigners were
allowed to obtain degrees, scholarly texts
from abroad were brought in, and political
literature was not subject to censorship.
1866 assassination attempt by university
student at Kazan university, liberal education
fosters radical ideas, Tolstoy comes in and is
much more reactionary, introducing crappy
subjects like classics.
The central
government also had more power to dictate
the curriculum. Liberals saw this clampdown
as unreservedly reactionary. As with the
local government reforms, AII was trying to
strike a difficult balance.
In 1887, the
universities statute took it all away.
REDUCTION TO CENSORSHIP:
In 1863, responsibility for censorship was
passed to Valuev.
1865-press laws,
progressive, things freed from censorship
such as periodicals, government publications
and publications in universities .New books
published, more freedom of ideas and
expression.
In comparison to Britain,
censorship was strict, but compared to what
had gone before in Russia it was pretty
liberal.
ECONOMIC REFORM: Reutern in 1862,
unified treasury, centralised administration,
exports improved thanks to railway
expansion, 1878-278 municipal banks, 727
loan and savings associations, 566 joint
stock companies, 33 commercial banks,
foreign jews trading and living throughout
empire.
Least important and actually pretty boring.
1862 budgets were published, 1863 system
of excise duties replaced the old system.
IN SHORT: These reforms did not go far
enough. AII had to reform his own role if he
was to successfully reform the country.
Ironically, he was assassinated on his way to
signing a bill that would begin constitutional
reform. Generally speaking, tried to please
everyone, and ended up backfiring
everywhere and alienating various groups
POLITICAL OPPOSITION TO ALEXANDER
II:
Often middle-class intelligentsia who had
developed radical ideas due to their
exposure to Western literature and political
writings.
POPULISM: Made up of young radicals,
negative, focussed on the peasants,
believing them to have the most potential, if
educated. Go into the country in 1874-1875,
3000 of them dress up as peasants and try to
enlighten the masses, 1600 are shot and the
rest are arrested. Peasants don’t understand
what is being suggested to them. Split into
two factions- the milder land and liberty and
the mental people’s will. Believe in terror as
a means of overthrowing the system.
NIHILISM:
Accept nothing, question
everything, criticise anything, middle class
intelligentsia group, highly theoretical, very
negative want everything to be changed but
are not terrorists.
ALEXANDER II’S FOREIGN POLICY:
EUROPE: Governed by the internal state
that Russia was in. Wanted to encourage
Franco-Austrian rivalry, aimed for closer links
with France, against tradition, French then
supported the Poles in 1863, ending all cooperation between the two. Only ally was
Prussia, Black Sea became neutral in 1871
following the great power conference in
London. In 1873, recognising the threat that
Germany was likely to pose, he joined the
three emperor’s league. Held a conservative
attitude which generally didn’t offend anyone
too much and worked out alright. Ideological
differences with these non-autocratic nations.
Several treaties were made later on, 1894
with France, 1904 with Britain and France
and 1907 with Britain.
ASIA:
Policy of sustained expansion.
Conflict in Caucasus region, eventual victory
in 1864, looked towards Persia and
Afghanistan
and
gradually
extended
influence eastwards. Gained land in Japan
and China, maintained relations with US
though sale of Alaska $7 million in 1867.
Was a means of getting raw materials,
consolidating borders and looking well ‘ard.
PAN-SLAVISM: Idealistic, saw Russia as
leader and protector of the Slav peoples.
Aimed to protect Baltic Christians under
Turkish rule. In 1875, Bosnians rebel against
Turkish rule, given financial support by
Russia. Spread to Bulgaria, Serbia in 1876.
Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877 but
hoped that the Turks would back down.
Treaty of San Stephano improved Russia’s
position in Europe, Berlin- treaty was revised
(took away sea access in Bulgaria). In this
region, Austria is the main rival with another
mixed nationality empire. Ottoman Empire is
collapsing leaving a power vacuum which
both nations were trying to fill.
POLISH REVOLT OF 1863:
Poland had become part of Russia during
1815, all Tsars are therefore also king of
Poland. 1830 revolt, lose constitution and
parliament,
regime
becomes
more
oppressive, they become much more pissed
off, 1863 they revolt again, 1/3 of their land
given away to peasants to punish the
landlords during the emancipation, doesn’t
make them much happier, Russification
occurs, people start to seriously dislike AII.
Result is that AII becomes more repressive.
And then he gets killed, so that is that.
ASSESS ALEXANDER II
HIS AIMS: To maintain stability and create a
strong Russia. Ultimate aim was to create a
military and industrial power through reform
but to remain autocratic.
Wanted to
emancipate the serfs to increase productivity
and industrial growth and end serfdom, from
above, not below.
EXTERNAL
CONSTRAINTS:
Geographical/physical issues which faced all
Russian leaders, the huge population,
corrupt and massive bureaucracy, mir,
nobles, landowners. All of these are very
conservative and present a barrier to reform.
Also has some conservative ministers. Has
some nasty opposition within the country and
has to deal with the Poles.
HOW EFFECTIVE WERE THE REFORMS?
Education- Primary schools much improved,
universities lead to free thinking, so are only
given limited freedom for a limited time.
Local government- Zemstva have power on
local scale and are symbolically important. .
Emancipation- Serfs were emancipated, but
alienates the nobles. Redemption payments
remain an issue for absolutely ages. He
gives people a taste of what they could have
and then refused to give any more, thus
creating more problems. He refused to
reform his own position, and this was the
main problem with the whole reform thing.
ALEXANDER III: 1881-1894
Extremely reactionary following father’s
assassination and assasination attempts,
makes education expensive and elitist, bans
foreign literature. Changed judicial system,
no open trials, trial by jury, more state police.
1890 Russia was a police state, freedom of
speech, freedom of ideas all suppressed.
Lots of people got sent to Siberia, good
practice for Stalin. Came to power in very
bad circumstances. The Okhrana was given
more power, and censorship was tightened
up, universities were brought under much
stricter control in 1887. Was helped by
Pobedonovstev, chief minister between 1881
and 1905 who believed that democracy is the
great lie of our time. He had a policy of
Russification, which aimed to bring national
minorities under stricter control, Russian
became the only official language, and there
was increased racism and victimisation.
National identities in Baltic states were
attacked. It was also a period of intense antiSemitism, and the mini purges on the Jews
were known as the Pogroms.
Sergei WITTE:
1893-1903 Finance
minister.
Finance minister who brings about the rapid
industrialisation of Russia.
Equated
economic power with military power. Wanted
to industrialise along Western lines.
Recognised
the
importance
of
communications but had a serious railways
obsession.
WITTE’S ECONOMIC REFORMS:
AIMS AND MOTIVATION: Modernisation of
economy, industry and agriculture, leading to
military modernisation, which would end
economic slumber. Exploited by Western
nations, unbeneficial trading relationship,
selling goods and raw materials very
cheaply. Needed economic independence.
Need to exploit natural resource wealth,
primitive methods, boost heavy industries
and improve export potential. Needed an
economy to compare with other Western
European nations, whom they are around
150 years behind. They are being exploited
by these Western powers, and Russia
needed
to
become
economically
independent, not just politically independent.
HOW IT WAS ACHIEVED: Infrastructure
had to be improved first. The process was
very uneven and severely limited. Through
improvements to infrastructure, particularly
transport with projects such as the TransSiberian railways.
1890-1900, coal
production increased from 5.9 to 16.1 million
tonnes per year, pig iron went from 0.89 to
2.66, oil went from 3.9 to 10.2 million. Also
increased agricultural production, due to
mechanisation, more grain production.
1891-1913 railway length in km grew from
31,219 to 70,156. Foreign experts were
also brought in. With huge loans that had to
be repaid. The emphasis was on heavy
industry and exports, leading to huge trade
deficit. System of state capitalism with the
expansion of basic raw materials. Between
1880 and 1913, grain production increases
from 34 million to 90 million tons.
EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION: Less
emphasis on agriculture, peasants left land.
Urbanisation occurred at a very rapid rate,
facilities in towns and cities not sufficient to
deal with this, leading to overcrowding and
disease due to poor hygiene, after 1900 as
industrialisation slowed down, there was
widespread unemployment. High tax and
currency value, as well as government
emphasis on heavy goods led to a shortage
of consumer goods at high prices, workers
had no union representation, at the mercy of
their employers. Exports increased but there
was still a huge debt problem and inflation
within the country. Depression began at the
beginning of the century.
Some people called it a great spurt, but it
was more of a dribble. It was mostly due to
private enterprises being sustained by
government policy, and industrialisation was
viewed solely as a means of improving the
economy. The huge loans led to very high
taxes within Russia, and this was not very
popular. There was a huge amount of direct
investment into the railways.
Normal
people and workers did not really benefit
from the industrial expansion.
Led to
depression and unemployment as the
population increased at a faster rate than
productivity. Industrialisation was far too
rapid and brutal and the use of money was
extremely uneven with consumer industries
being completely neglected.
Debt: 116
million in 1897 and 155 million by 1913, the
biggest in the world. In 1902, troops were
used to put down riots 365 times. A working
class is also formed, and they are politicised
for the first time.
THE DEPRESSION: Started at the turn of
the century and was a world-wide thing.
Urbanisation had been too rapid, there were
no facilities for the new workers leading to
overcrowding. With the recession came
widespread unemployment, and people no
longer accepted the poor conditions. There
is social unrest, and the authorities began to
find it increasingly difficult to deal with the
problems. The workers don’t gain from the
slight recovery and still are not represented
by trade unions.
NICHOLAS II: 1894-1918 (Abdication 1917)
Good husband, bad politician.
Limited
intelligence, couldn’t speak very good
Russian, spoke good French, had no military
experience, hated the Japanese after his
grand tour, didn’t want to be leader of
Russia, did his own paperwork and had no
sense of the big picture. Taking over the
Russian army was a seriously bad move, as
it left Russia in the hands of Rasputin and
the Tsarina, who were unpopular .
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
Occurred between 1904 and 1905. Japan a
rapidly modernising power in the far east with
imperial interests in Korea and China. This
expansion threatened Russia’s interests in
the area. NII underestimated the strength of
this nation. Internally, Plehve suggested that
a war might take people’s minds off of the
crisis (the economic depression following the
over-the-top, brutal industrialisation). The
Russians were very poorly equipped for this
war , had out of date techniques, and were
trying to organise it from 6000 miles away.
Infantry was soon defeated in Manchuria,
whilst the fleet was beaten at Tsushima. The
unrest triggered by the conflict meant that
there were calls for reform. NII was not
willing to meet these, leading to Bloody
Sunday in 1905.