Download Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences

41 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
Chapter 2
Understanding Individual Differences
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
In this chapter, we focus first on the individual to help you develop an understanding of
organizational behavior. Individual differences may be physical, psychological, or emotional.
The individual differences that characterize you make you unique. Perhaps you have a dynamic
personality and enjoy being the center of attention, whereas others you know avoid crowds and
do not have the same energy level as you. Whenever you attempt to understand individual
differences, you must also analyze the situation in which the behavior occurs. A good starting
point in developing this understanding is to appreciate the role of personality in organizations. In
this chapter, we discuss individual differences in personality attitudes and emotions. We begin by
addressing the concept of personality. Later in the chapter, we explore the role of attitudes and
emotions in organizational behavior.
LEARNING GOALS
Upon completion of this chapter, the students should be able to:




Explain the basic sources of personality determinants.
Identify a set of personality characteristics that affect behavior.
Describe how attitudes influence performance.
Explain how emotions impact performance.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
Learning from Experience: Richard Branson, CEO, Virgin Group, Ltd.
II.
Personality Determinants
A.
Heredity
B.
Environment
III.
Personality and Behavior
A.
Big Five Personality Factors
B.
Self-Esteem
42 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Locus of Control
Introversion and Extroversion
Emotional Intelligence
Role of Personality in Organizations
Teams Competency: Why Personality is Important at Starbucks
Managerial Guidelines
IV.
Work Attitudes and Behavior
A.
Components of Attitudes
B.
Key Work Related Attitudes: Hope, Job Satisfaction, and Organizational
Commitment
C.
Communications Competency: Creating Positive Attitudes at The Container Store
V.
Managing Emotions at Work
A.
A Model of Emotions
B.
Across Cultures Competency— Emotions in Japan
C.
Managerial Guidelines
VI.
Chapter Summary
A.
Key Terms and Concepts
B.
Discussion Questions
VIII.
Experiential Exercises
A.
Experiential Exercise: Self Competency––What Are Your Cultural Values?
B.
Experiential Exercise: Self Competency ––What’s Your Emotional IQ
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Thirty-one key terms and concepts are developed in Chapter 2. The key terms and concepts,
along with definitions or appropriate descriptions, are as follows:
Agreeableness: a person’s ability to get along with others.
Anticipatory emotions: the emotions that individuals believe they will feel after achievement or
failure of reaching their goal.
Attitudes: relatively lasting feelings, beliefs, and behavioral tendencies aimed at specific people,
groups, ideas, issues, or objects.
Collectivism: the tendency of people to emphasize their belonging to groups and to look after
each other in exchange for loyalty.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 43
Conscientiousness: concerned with self-discipline, acting responsibly, and directing our
behavior.
Culture: the distinctive ways in which people in different societies organize and live their lives.
Emotional intelligence: how well an individual handles oneself and others rather than how
smart or how capable the individual is in terms of technical skills.
Emotional stability: the degree to which a person is calm, secure, and free from persistent
negative feelings.
Emotions: the complex pattern of feelings toward an object or person.
External locus of control: (externals) believe that chance, fate, or other people primarily
determine what happens to them.
Extraversion: the degree to which a person seeks the company of others.
Gender role orientation: the extent to which a society reinforces, or does not reinforce,
traditional notions of masculinity versus femininity.
Goal: what an individual is trying to accomplish.
Hope: a person’s mental willpower (determination) and waypower (road map) to achieve goals.
Individual differences: the personal attributes that vary from one person to another.
Individualism: the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate families.
Internal locus of control: (internals) believe that their own behavior and actions primarily, but
not necessarily totally, determine many of the events in their lives.
Job satisfaction: the extent to which people find fulfillment in their work.
Locus of control: the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events affecting
them.
Long-term orientation: the extent to which the society embraces the virtues oriented toward
future rewards.
Openness: describes imagination and creativity.
Organizational commitment: the strength of an employee’s involvement in the organization.
44 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
and identification with it.
Personality: the overall profile or combination of psychological attributes that capture the
unique nature of a person.
Personality trait: the basic components of personality.
Power distance: the extent to which people in a society accept status and power inequalities as a
normal and functional aspect of life.
Self-awareness: recognizing one’s emotions, strengths and limitations, and capabilities and how
these affect others.
Self-esteem: the extent to which a person believes that he or she is a worthwhile and deserving
individual.
Self-motivation: being results oriented and pursuing goals beyond what’s required.
Social empathy: sensing what others need in order for them to develop.
Social skills: the ability of a person to influence others.
Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which people rely on procedures, and organizations
(including government) to avoid ambiguity, unpredictability, and risk.
LECTURE NOTES
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.0
Understanding Individual Differences
I.
Part I of the text promotes understanding of individuals in organizations. Chapter 2
initiates this understanding by exploring personality and attitudes––two major individual
differences variables (i.e., the ways in which people differ from each other). Power Point
2.1 identifies the learning goals to be addressed in understanding individual differences.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 45
INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES:_____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
A.
Explain the basic sources of personality determinants.
B.
Identify a set of personality characteristics that affect behavior.
C.
Describe how attitudes affect behavior.
D.
Explain how emotions impact performance.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.1
Learning Goals for Understanding Individual Differences
II.
PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS
INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES:____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
46 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
____________________________________________________________________________
A.
Learning goal: Explain the basic sources of personality determinants.
B.
The concept of personality.
C.
1.
Behavior involves a complex interaction of the person and the situation.
2.
Personality represents personal characteristics that lead to consistent
patterns of behavior.
3.
Personality is the overall profile or combination of stable characteristics
that capture the unique nature of a person.
4.
Two important ideas are embedded in the above definition of personality.
a.
Personality describes people’s commonalities and differences.
b.
Personality is relatively stable over time.
How is an individual’s personality determined?
1.
Power Point 2.2–which reproduces Figure 2.1 in the textbook—shows that
heredity and environment interact with each other in shaping each
individual’s personality.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.2 (Figure 2.1)
Sources of Personality Differences
2.
Both heredity and environment are important determinants of personality.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.3
Leader Insight
Personality is like a tree and reputation like its shadow. The shadow is what
we think of it; the tree is the real thing.
Robert Eccles, Founder, Perception Partners
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 47
3.
4.
Heredity as a source of personality differences.
a.
Heredity may set limits in the range of personality development
and within this range environmental forces determine specific
characteristics.
b.
Research on twins raised apart indicates that heredity may play a
larger role in personality formation than many experts had thought.
c.
As much as 50 to 55 percent of personality traits have been
attributed to heredity.
Environment as a source of personality differences.
a.
Four environmental components––culture, family, group
membership, and life experiences––contribute to personality
differences.
b.
Culture.
(1)
Culture refers to the distinctive ways that people in
different societies organize and live their lives.
(2)
Culture determines societal values and norms as well as
defining how various roles are to be performed.
(3)
Culture helps determine broad patterns of behavioral
similarity among people.
(4)
Even though cultures are distinctive, they are not
homogenous. All members of a culture do not respond to
cultural characteristics in the same way.
(5)
Managers should not assume that subordinates are like
themselves in terms of societal values, personality, or other
individual characteristics.
(6)
Power Point 2.4–which reproduces Figure 2.2 in the
textbook— shows a framework of six work-related values.
48 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.4 (Figure 2.2)
Influence of Culturally Based Work-Related Values
(7)
Individualism versus collectivism is a fundamental workrelated value as shown in Power Point 2.5.
(8)
Individualism is the tendency of people to look after
themselves and their immediate families.
(9)
A culture high on individualism emphasizes individual
initiative, decision making, and achievement.
(10)
Collectivism is the tendency of people to emphasize their
belonging to groups and to look after each other in exchange
for loyalty.
(11)
Collectivism involves emotional dependence of the individual
on groups, organizations, and institutions.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.5
Three Characteristics of Collectivism-Individualism
(12)
Power distance is the extent to which people in a society
accept status and power inequalities as a normal and
functional aspect of life.
(13) Power Point 2.6 shows that countries “high in power
distance” have citizens who accept status and power
inequalities; those “low in power distance” have citizens who
do not.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.6
Three Characteristics of Power Distance
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 49
ENRICHMENT MODULE
Power Distance Index
Hofstede’s Power distance Index measures the extent to which the less powerful members of
organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed
unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above.
It suggests that a society’s level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the
leaders. For example, Germany has a (35) on the cultural scale of Hofstede’s analysis. Compared
to Arab countries where the power distance is very high (80) and Austria where it very low (11),
Germany is somewhat in the middle. Germany does not have a large gap between the wealthy
and the poor, but have a strong belief in equality for each citizen. Germans have the opportunity
to rise in society. On the other hand, the power distance in the United States scores a (40) on the
cultural scale. The United States exhibits a more unequal distribution of wealth compared to
German society. As the years go by it seems that the distance between the ‘have’ and ‘have-nots’
grows larger and larger.
This enrichment module is adapted from Power Distance Index retrieved on July 9, 2007 from
http://www.clearlycultural.com/geert-hofstede-cultural-dimensions/power-distance-index/
(14)
Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which people rely on
procedures, and organizations (including government) to
avoid ambiguity, unpredictability, and risk.
(15)
Power Point 2.7 shows three characteristics of uncertainty
avoidance.
(16)
With “high” uncertainty avoidance, individuals seek
orderliness, consistency, structure, and laws. With “low”
uncertainty avoidance, there is tolerance of ambiguity and
uncertainty.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.7
Three Characteristics of Uncertainty Avoidance
(17)
Gender role orientation is the extent to which a society
reinforces, or does not reinforce, traditional notions of
masculinity versus femininity. A society is called
masculine when gender roles are clearly distinct.
50 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
(18)
Power Point 2.8 shows three characteristics of long-term
versus short-term orientation.
(19)
Long-term orientation is the extent to which the society
embraces the virtues oriented toward future rewards.
(20)
A short-term orientation stands for fostering respect for
tradition, preservation of “face,” concern with status and
social obligations, and the belief that efforts should produce
quick results.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.8
Three Characteristics of Short Versus Long-Term Orientation
c.
d.
e.
Family.
(1)
One’s immediate family is the primary means for
socializing an individual into a particular culture. The
family influences personality formation.
(2)
Members of an extended family also influence personality
formation.
(3)
Family-related variables influence personality development,
such as socioeconomic status, family size, birth order, race,
religion, geographic location, parents’ educational level,
etc.
Group membership.
(1)
The roles assumed by people and their experiences as
members of various groups contribute to personality
differences.
(2)
Personality differences may result from the influence of
membership in many different groups, both past and
present.
Life experiences.
(1)
Each individual’s life is unique in terms of specific
events and experiences, which in turn, can have an
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 51
important impact on the development of one’s
personality.
Self Competency: David Neeleman of JetBlue
During his junior year in college, Neeleman returned to Brazil and lived in the
slums. He was struck by a few things. First, most wealthy people have a sense of
entitlement. They thought that they were better than the people in the slums.
Second, most of the poor people were happier than the rich people and shared what
little they had. These experiences had a tremendous impact on the formation of his
personality and his drive to manage JetBlue differently. When he travels on a
business trip, he flies coach class. There is no Lincoln town car waiting for him at
the airport. At JetBlue, there are no reserved parking places. The coffee in the
kitchen down the hall from his work space is the same as that in the employee
lounge at J. F. Kennedy airport. There is only one class on JetBlue planes.
Employees and customers like the “touchy-feely” aspect of JetBlue. JetBlue is
generous with travel vouchers when passengers are inconvenienced. Neeleman
himself once drove an elderly couple from JFK to Connecticut, where he lives and
they were headed, rather then let them spend $200 on a taxi.
For more information on JetBlue, visit the organization’s home page at
www.jetblue.com.
III.
PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOR
INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES:____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
52 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
A.
Learning goal: Identify a set of personality characteristics that affect
behavior.
B.
An individual’s personality may be described in terms of specific personality
traits, which are the basic components of personality.
C.
While thousands of personality traits exist, recent research has identified a set of
general factors that can be used to describe an individual’s personality. Five major
personality factors––called the “Big Five” personality factors––describe an
individual’s personality in terms of adjustment, sociability, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and intellectual openness (see Power Point 2.9––which is based on
Figure 2.2 of the textbook). Ask students to complete the assessment in the text.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.9
The “Big Five” Personality Factors (Figure 2.3)
1.
Each factor is a collection of related personality traits.
2.
Each factor is represented on a continuum, with the endpoints of the
continuum reflecting polar opposites on the personality factor. One end of
the continuum has a positive connotation while the other has a negative
connotation.
3.
The linkage between a “Big Five” personality factor and specific behavior
often is clearest when focusing on a single trait.
D.
Emotional stability is the degree to which a person is calm, secure, and free
from persistent negative feelings.
E.
Agreeableness is a person’s ability to get along with others.
F.
1.
Agreeable individuals’ value getting along with others.
2.
Highly agreeable people are better at developing and maintaining close
relationships with others at work, whereas less agreeable people do not.
Extraversion and introversion.
1.
Extraversion is the degree to which a person seeks the company of others.
Extroverts tend to be sociable, lively, impulsive, and emotionally
expressive (see Power Point 2.10).
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 53
2.
Introversion is the tendency to be less sociable. Introverts tend to be
low-key, quiet, and deliberate.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.10
Personality Traits: Introversion and Extroversion
G.
H.
I.
3.
Introversion and extroversion are part of the sociability factor of
personality.
4.
Research has shown that sociable people tend to be higher performing
managers than less sociable people and that they are more likely to be
attracted to managerial positions that require good interpersonal skills.
Conscientiousness is concerned with self-discipline, acting responsibly, and
directing our behavior.
1.
People who focus on a few key goals are more organized, reliable,
responsible, and self-disciplined and do a few things well.
2.
Unconscientious people focus on a wider array of goals, and are more
disorganized.
Openness describes imagination and creativity.
1.
People with high levels of openness listen to new ideas, have vivid
imaginations, prefer variety to routine, and change ideas in response to new
information.
2.
People who demonstrate low openness tend to be less receptive to new
ideas and less willing to change their minds.
Organizational Effectiveness and the Big Five.
1.
The link between personality and specific behaviors often is most clear
when we focus on a single trait rather than all five factors.
2.
Organizations are using the Big Five for screening new employees as part of
their interviewing process.
3.
Some individuals feel that one’s personality traits can undergo change.
54 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
J.
K.
Self-esteem.
1.
Self-esteem is like the emotional stability factor of the Big Five
personality.
2.
It is the result of the continuing evaluation people make of themselves in
terms of their own behavior, abilities, appearance, and worth.
3.
Self-esteem most likely would be part of the emotional stability factor of
personality.
4.
People with high self-esteem, as compared to those with low self-esteem,
will take more risks in job selection, may be more attracted to high-status
occupations, are more likely to choose unconventional or nontraditional
jobs, have more positive experiences in the job search process, are less
easily influenced by others’ opinions in the work setting, set higher goals
for themselves and place more value on attaining those goals, and are less
susceptible to adverse job conditions (e.g., stress, conflict, ambiguity, poor
supervision, poor working conditions, etc.).
Locus of control.
1.
Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they
can control events affecting them. Locus of control may be internal or
external. People with an internal locus of control(internals) believe that
their own behavior and actions primarily, but not necessarily totally,
determine many of the events in their lives. People with an external locus
of control (externals) believe that chance, fate, or other people primarily
determine what happens to them. (see Power Point 2.11).
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.11
Personality Trait: Locus of Control
2.
Locus of control is like the conscientiousness factor of the Big Five
personality.
3.
Table 2.1 from the text provides a short questionnaire that students can use
to assess their locus of control beliefs. Ask students to complete it.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 55
4.
Internals, as compared to externals, have better control over their own
behavior, are more active politically and socially, search more actively for
information about their situations, are more likely to attempt to influence
others, are less likely to be influenced by others, are more achievement
oriented, dislike a directive style of supervision, and adjust more readily to
international assignments.
5.
Job performance is also affected by locus of control. See Power Point
2.12. which represents Figure 2.4 in the text.
a.
Internals perform better in jobs that require complex information
processing and learning, initiative and independent action, and high
self-motivation. Internals also perform better in jobs that provide
valued rewards based on their own behavior.
b.
Externals perform better when the work requires compliance and
conformity.
c.
Internals and externals perform equally well when the work is
simple and easy to learn, little effort is required, and contingent
rewards are absent.
d.
Internals adjust more readily to international assignments than
externals.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.12 (Figure 2.4)
Job Performance and Locus of Control
L.
Emotional Intelligence
1.
Emotional intelligence refers to how well an individual handles
himself and others rather than how smart or how capable the individual is
in terms of technical skills. See Power Point 2.13.
2.
Students can assess their own emotional intelligence by
completing the questionnaire at the end of the chapter.
3.
Emotional intelligence includes four attributes:
a.
Self-awareness---- recognizing one’s emotions, strengths and
56 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
limitations, and capabilities and how these affect others.
4.
b.
Social empathy----sensing what others need in order for them
to develop.
c.
Self-motivation---being results oriented and pursuing goals
beyond what is required.
d.
Social skills----the ability of a person to influence others.
EQ is the social equivalent of IQ. Research shows that competencies
associated with EQ are twice as important for career success as IQ or
technical competencies.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.13
Emotional Intelligence
M.
Role of Personality in Organizations
1.
The challenge for managers and employees is to understand the role of
personality in explaining behavior in the workplace.
2.
Knowledge of differences provides insights and a framework to
diagnose events and situations.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 57
ENRICHMENT MODULE
The Training of Emotional Competence in Financial Advisors
Using four cohorts of volunteers from two American Express Financial Services
market groups, thirty-seven financial services advisors, five vice presidents, and an
administrative assistant participated in a yearlong pilot project designed to measure
the effect of emotional competence/forgiveness training on sales and quality of life.
The training for this project began with a one-day workshop attended by the
participants at each site.
Subsequent to this workshop an individual development plan (IDP) was created for
each advisor which was implemented through 4 follow up conference calls over a
year long period. Results showed gross dealer concession (sales) increased an
average of 18%, 24%, 24%, and 46% for the four groups. The overall average
improvement in productivity was 25%, which compared to a corresponding 10%
increase in sales for the market group reference samples. In addition, the stress
levels of the thirty-six participants who completed the yearlong training decreased
29% over the year of the project while their reported positive emotional states
increased 24%. Quality of life, anger and physical vitality measures also
demonstrated statistically significant positive change.
The enrichment module is taken from: Frederic Lusken, Ph.D, Rick Aberman,
Ph.D, and Arthur DeLorenzo, Jr. The Training of Emotional Competence in
Financial Advisors. The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in
Organizations. January, 2005
http://www.eiconsortium.org/research/coaching_competencies.htm
58 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
Teams Competency: Why Personality is Important at Starbucks
Enter any Starbucks and you’ll see baristas (the associates who take orders and who
make and serve coffee and food) who work together as a team for the store’s
success. All baristas receive 24 hours of in-store training in customer service (how
to meet, greet and serve customers) and basic retail skills, as well as, “Coffee
Knowledge” and “Brewing the Perfect Cup” classes. Baristas learn to anticipate the
customer’s needs, and to make eye contact while carefully explaining the various
flavors and blends. One of the guiding principles at Starbucks is to provide a great
working environment and to employ people who treat each other with high respect
and dignity (emotional stability). Starbucks looks to hire people with high selfesteem, who are sensitive to the feelings of others and who want the participation
and success for all team members.
For more information on Starbucks, visit the organization’s home page at
www.starbucks.com
N.
Managerial Guidelines
1.
Behavior always involves an interaction of the person and the
situation.
2.
Considering both determinants helps to understand behavior in
organizations.
a.
If all individuals share common characteristics, the
organization might be resistant to change.
b.
To remain competitive, organizations should hire some people who do
not fit the common mold.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 59
ENRICHMENT MODULE
Can Your Personality Get You Fired?
With the high costs of employee turnover, it's no surprise companies are turning to
personality and behavioral assessments to help evaluate job candidates, build teams,
and resolve workplace conflict. Ann Taylor Loft, the world's fastest-growing
women's retailer, recently began using testing to fine-tune its hiring process and
bring in top talent. Through a partnership with the Gallup organization, Loft has
developed a tool that profiles employees who have been highly successful and
identifies candidates who have similar traits. Desired characteristics vary by
position. If you're applying for a floor sales manager job at a Loft store, for
example, you would be asked to complete an on-line assessment gauging your
talents, traits, attitudes and behaviors related to assisting and helping traits. Desired
characteristics vary by position. Wei-Li Chong, Ann Taylor Loft's vice president of
organizational effectiveness says, "We want to know what makes them tick.
This enrichment module is adapted from: Lorenz, K. Can Your Personality Get You
Fired. Retrieved on July 10, 2007 from
http://msn.careerbuilder.com/custom/msn/careeradvice/viewarticle.aspx?articleid=3
40&SiteId=cbmsn4340&sc_extcmp=JS_340_advice&catid=wi
IV.
WORK ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR
INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES:_____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
A.
Learning goal: Describe how attitudes influence performance.
B.
Components of attitudes.
1.
Attitudes are relatively lasting feelings, beliefs, and behavioral tendencies
60 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
aimed at specific people, groups, ideas, issues, or objects.
2.
Like personality, attitudes are influenced by both heredity and a person’s
background and life experiences.
3.
An attitude consists of three interactive components (see Power Point
2.14):
a.
An affective component, or the feelings, sentiments, moods, and
emotions about someone or something.
b.
A cognitive component, or beliefs, opinions, knowledge, or
information an individual has about someone or something.
c.
A behavioral component, or the predisposition to act on a favorable
or unfavorable evaluation of someone or something.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.14
Components of Attitudes
C.
The link between attitudes and behavior.
1.
Attitudes are usually viewed as stable individual differences, but attitudes
and their effects on behavior can be complex.
2.
An attitude represents the interplay of a person’s affective, cognitive, and
behavioral tendencies with regard to a person, group event, or issue.
Leader Insight
I really think there’s only one thing in your life you have control over, and
that’s your attitude.
Susan Mead,
Partner, Jackson Walker, L.L.P.
D.
Key Work-Related Attitudes: Hope, Job Satisfaction and
Organizational Commitment
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 61
1.
Attitudes closely linked to performance include hope, job satisfaction, and
organizational commitment.
2.
Hope affects the link between attitudes and behavior.
a.
Hope involves a person’s mental willpower (determination) and
waypower (road map) to achieve goals.
b.
Hope applies to a variety of work-related attitudes, thereby enhancing
their effect on work behaviors.
c.
Table 2.3 from the text provides a short questionnaire that students can
use to assess how hopeful they are. Ask students to complete it.
d.
Managers can help employees increase their level of hope by (see
Power Point 2.15)
(1)
Helping employees set clear goals that have benchmarks so that
employees can track their progress.
(2)
Helping employees break overall, long-term goals into small
subgoals or steps.
(3)
Helping employees figure out how to motivate themselves to
reach their goals.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.15
Helping Employees to Increase Their Hope
3.
Job satisfaction
a.
Job satisfaction reflects the extent to which people find fulfillment in their
work.
b.
Table 2.4 from the textbook provides a short questionnaire that students
can use to measure job satisfaction. Ask students to complete it.
c.
The various sources of job satisfaction provide important clues regarding
actions that can be taken to improve people’s lives at work. Power Point
2.16---Table 2.5 in the text---identifies several sources of job satisfaction as
well as the effects that these sources have on job satisfaction. A key idea
62 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
here is that job satisfaction should be viewed primarily as an outcome of an
individual’s work experience.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.16 (Table 2.5)
Effects of Various Work Factors on Job Satisfaction
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.17 (Table 2.5)
Effects of Various Work Factors on Job Satisfaction
Continued
d.
A clear and direct relationship between job satisfaction and job performance
does not exist. In part, this is because job satisfaction is a general attitude
and job performance is usually task specific. Job performance is linked to
job satisfaction. Job satisfaction, as a general measure, appears to be directly
related to overall organizational performance.
e.
Despite the absence of a clear satisfaction-performance relationship, the
satisfaction of organization members is important for the following reasons:
(1)
Organizations with satisfied employees tend to have less conflict than
those with unsatisfied employees.
(2)
There is a link between customer satisfaction and the satisfaction of
employees who interact with their customers.
(3)
Dissatisfied employees are more likely to come late to work, fail to
show up, and be disorganized.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 63
Communication Competency: Creating Positive Attitudes at The Container Store
Turnover is greater than 100 percent in most retail stores but only 30 percent at the
Container Store. The Container Store practices what it preaches. Every first-year
full-time employee gets about 241 hours of training (the norm is seven hours). All
new employees in the stores, distribution center and headquarters go through five
days dedicated to learning information about products, processes and values, plus
extra human resources reading. New employees assume regular work schedules
only after having completed the five full days of training. Then, they spend time in
different units to learn about the company’s strategic challenges. A guiding
principle is to offer the best selection, the best service plus the best price. All
employees are encouraged to treat customers like visitors in their homes.
For more information on The Container Store, visit the organization’s home page at
www.containerstore.com.
4.
Organizational commitment.
a.
Organizational commitment refers to the strength of an employee’s
involvement in the organization and identification with it.
b.
Strong commitment is characterized by (see Power Point 2.18):
(1)
A support of and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values.
(2)
A willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the
organization.
(3)
A desire to remain with the organization.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.18
Characteristics of Strong Commitment
64 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
ENRICHMENT MODULE
More Emotion and Less Rationality About Strategy
London-based strategy consultants have conducted research into people’s
experience of (and attitudes to) strategy development. Their evidence suggests that
that managers are crying out for strategies that engage both heart and head. Only
one quarter of the survey base said they found their organization’s strategy exciting.
Half don’t feel involved, or believe that their opinions are listened to. But the
survey data also revealed that 10 percent of managers labeled the “super-engaged”
like the rigor of their company’s thinking and are committed to achieving clearly
understandable goals, but they also feel that their organization has a common
purpose and that leaders are united around it.
According to the research, there seems to be a strong correlation between emotional
and rational “buy-in” ---and you need both to succeed. The data suggests that
stronger engagement and commitment can only be achieved when there is a
successful attempt to persuade colleagues---emotionally as well as rationally ---that
a planned strategy, is credible and doable.
This enrichment module is adapted from: Wanted: more emotion and less
rationality about strategy, Financial Times, February 20, 2007, 7.
c.
People’s initial commitment is determined by their individual difference
characteristics and the degree of similarity between their expectations and
organizational realities.
d.
Subsequent commitment is influenced by job experiences––many of the
same factors that influence satisfaction also influence commitment.
e.
Over time, organizational commitment becomes stronger because:
(1)
individuals develop deeper ties to the organization and their
coworkers.
(2)
seniority brings advantages that develop positive work
attitudes.
(3)
job opportunities decrease with age, causing employees to
become more attached to their current job.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 65
V.
MANAGING EMOTIONS AT WORK
INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES:_____________________________________________________
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A.
Learning goal: Explain how emotions impact performance.
B.
Emotions are the complex pattern of feelings toward an object or person.
C.
How employees and managers handle their emotions at work has a tremendous
impact on their productivity.
1.
When people experience positive emotions, they think more creatively, seek
new information and experiences, behave more flexibly, have greater
confidence, and are more persistent.
2.
Negative emotions, such as anger, disgust, or sadness, tend to narrow a
person’s focus and limit options to seek alternatives.
3.
Power Point 2-19 which is adapted from Figure 2-5 shows both positive
and negative emotions. Positive emotions are linked to organizational
effectiveness. People who feel positive emotions set high goals and fix
mistakes.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.19
Positive and Negative Emotions (Figure 2.5)
66 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
D.
A Model of Emotions
1.
Figure 2-6 shown in Power Point 2-20 shows how emotions affect
behavior.
2.
A goal refers to what an individual is trying to accomplish.
3.
Anticipatory emotions refer to the emotions that individual’s believe they
will feel after achievement or failure of reaching their goal.
4.
If the anticipatory emotions are of sufficient intensity to motivate a person,
the person will engage in those behaviors needed to reach the goal. Goal
attainment is the next step.
5.
In good times and in a crisis, positive emotions and behaviors create fun
in organizations because people copy each others emotions. Employees
feel gratitude for the goodwill received and show greater loyalty and effort.
6.
Positive emotions in organizations can be a competitive advantage that is
not easily copied by competitors.
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.20
Role of Emotions in Performance (Figure 2.6)
Across Cultures Competency: Emotions in Japan
In the Japanese culture, hiding one’s emotions is considered a virtue because the
lack of expression minimizes conflict and avoids drawing attention to the
individual. Tomoko Yoshida is a customer relations training expert who works at
the Sheraton Hotels in Japan. He teaches hotel employees never to show emotions
while talking with a guest. Yet, the author of The Power of Laughing Face, found
that even in Japan’s culture, the friendliest clerks in some of Japans biggest retail
stores consistently rang up the highest sales. His research found that smiling sales
clerks reported 20 percent more sales than non-smiling sales clerks.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 67
E.
Managerial Guidelines—seven ways to create positive emotions.
1.
Express positive emotions---gratitude, generosity, optimism, trust---at work.
2.
Positive communications sent by the manager must outnumber negative
communications by a ratio of 5:1.
3.
Give unexpected kindness and reach out to others when it is least expected.
4.
Help people find positive meaning in their day-to-day work.
5.
Provide opportunities for people to help each other and to express
appreciation for the help they receive from others.
6.
Celebrate small wins so that employees experience ongoing success and the
associated positive emotions.
7.
In a crisis, enable employees to experience and express what if feels like to
rise to the occasion and find the strength and resources they never knew
they had.
68 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
ENRICHMENT MODULE
The Cassatt Quartet: Emotions Affect Performance
At the 2005 Bowdoin International Music Festival in Brunswick, Maine, the
Cassatt’s are to perform Quartet No. Four, Silent Temple by Chinese composer
Bright Sheng, (www.brightsheng.com/) who is in attendance at the festival. The
Model of Emotions explains how the Cassatt Quartet achieves a high-level
performance.

First, a goal is set for the performance. The Cassatts want to capture various
moods and characters often found in other Asian art forms; stillness,
patience, timelessness, anger and drama.

Second, anticipatory emotions include a belief that the Quartet members
have the ability to play the piece well. The members have much experience
in performing contemporary music, which is often challenging because of
rhythmic and technical demands.

Third, Quartet members learn their parts individually prior to group
rehearsals. Then the group rehearses the piece together many times, trying
different ways to bring out the character of the piece. The Cassatts then
rehearse with Bright Sheng to benefit from his comments. Finally, the
Cassatts rehearse in the local high school, the performance venue, to adjust
their performance to the acoustical demands of the hall.

Fourth, following the concert the Cassatts will decide if their performance
goals were attained.

Fifth, the Cassatts will experience positive emotions if the performance
reaches the goals set. If not, the group will experience negative emotions
and try to make adjustments for the next performance of this work.
This enrichment module was taken from interviews with the Cassatt Quartet and
attendance at the concert.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 69
VI.
SUMMARY
INSTRUCTOR’S NOTES:____________________________________________________
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTED ANSWERS
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.21
Discussion Questions
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.22
Discussion Questions
Continued
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.23
Discussion Questions
Continued
1.
Visit Virgin’s website (www.virgin.com) and click on the Jobs icon. Then click on
the feature “What we are like.” Using the dimensions found in the Big Five personality
profile, how do the job descriptions match the personality of Richard Branson?
The Big Five personality model includes----- emotional stability, agreeableness,
extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness.
70 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences

Emotional stability: the degree to which a person is calm, secure, and free from
persistent negative feelings.
Branson is confident and positive. The desired profile for the Virgin Group is someone
like Branson: someone who gets charged up when told that something cannot be done;
someone who is unafraid of industry barriers and will not take no for an answer.
When recruiting employees Virgin has some broad principles: We know what kind of
people we want and we work hard to recruit the best. We train them properly.
You'll play your part in maintaining the friendly, unconventional professionalism that
makes Virgin Atlantic such a unique place of work. So if you're keen to make the most of
your talents, contribute some bright ideas, and have a great time while you're at it, we'd
love to hear from you.

Agreeableness: a person’s ability to get along with others.
He is concerned about industry-specific expertise as he is with recruiting employees with
strong communication and teamwork competencies that mesh with the Virgin culture.
We allow them freedom to be themselves. We trust them to make the right decisions, and
the odd mistake is tolerated

Extraversion: the degree to which a person seeks the company of others.
Branson’s personal trademark is doing outlandish publicity stunts like driving a tank
down Fifth Avenue in New York to introduce Virgin Cola to the United States and
engaging in high-profile hot-air balloon adventures.
So who's a Virgin Person? "Virgin people are easy to spot. They act in unusual ways as
it's the only way they know how. But it's not forced – it's natural. They are honest,
cheeky, questioning, amusing, disruptive, intelligent and restless… Virgin people are
smart."

Conscientiousness: concerned with self-discipline, acting responsibly, and directing
our behavior.
Branson is known for his ever-present notebook and pen, which he pulls out whenever
he chats with employees and customers. By writing things down, he creates a regular
list of items for immediate action. He reads mail from employees every morning before
he does anything else.
From frontline cabin crew to IT analysts, everyone here plays a role in delivering the
Virgin brand. That means using initiative, taking responsibility for your actions and
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 71
being ready to support those around you at all time.

Openness: describes imagination and creativity.
Employees do not hesitate to air their grievances directly to Branson who has proved
with his actions that he actively listens. Branson states, “Instead of needing a union
when they have a problem, they come to me. I will give the employee the benefit of the
doubt on most occasions.”
Virgin is a diverse organization so there are no set personality profiles for being a
Virgin person. However, we recruit people who like to be given scope to try new ideas,
and who can cope with being thrown in at the deep end. . We believe in karma – we're
loyal to them and they're loyal to us.
2.
How might a culture impact the development of a person’s personality? What cultural
dimensions seem to have the most influence on this developmental process?
Individuals born into a particular society are exposed to family and societal values and to
norms of acceptable or unacceptable behavior—the culture of that society. Culture also
defines how various roles in that society are to be performed. For example, U.S. culture
rewards people for being independent and competitive, whereas Japanese culture rewards
individuals for being cooperative and group oriented. Culture helps determine broad
patterns of behavioral similarity among people. Although culture has an impact on the
development of employees’ personalities, not all individuals respond to cultural influences
equally.
The values shown in Figure 2-2 have the most influence on this developmental process.
For example, people who are raised in a high power distance culture behave submissively
to managers and avoid disagreements with them whereas in low power distance countries,
employees bypass a manager if necessary in order to get their work done.
3.
What influences on personality formation seem most important to you? Why?
When students are asked about the relative importance of heredity and environment in
personality formation, three positions will likely emerge:

One position is that personality is determined primarily by heredity. To
support this position, students will typically cite personality similarities
between parents and their offspring. Students may also cite research on twins
separated at birth or a very early age and then reared apart. One of the
revelations of this stream of research is that twins raised apart are often quite
similar in their personalities.

A second position is that personality is determined primarily by the
environment. Students may support this position by arguing for the influence
72 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
of life experiences––particularly early childhood experiences––upon
personality formation and development. Also cited in support of this position
will be the influential roles of the nuclear and extended families in the early
years of one’s life, and of peer group members in the late preteen and
teenage years. The influences of religion, culture, or various group
memberships may also be cited.

4.
A third position is that personality results from heredity and the environment
rather than being attributable primarily to one or the other. A common
explanation is that heredity may provide some capacity for development of
specific personality traits, but that the extent to which those traits are
developed is a function of people’s experiences with their own relatively
unique environments.
Using the Big Five personality factors, describe the personality of (a) a close family
member and (b) a person for whom you have worked. How did these factors affect your
behavior toward them?
Five personality factors (or clusters of personality traits) are identified in the text. These
five––known as the Big Five personality factors––are emotional stability, agreeableness,
extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness.
Each factor exists on a continuum, with polar opposites defining the end points of the
continuum. Therefore, the personality factors may be described as follows:





Emotional stability ranges from stable, confident, and effective to nervous,
self-doubting, and moody.
Agreeableness ranges from warm, tactful, and considerate to independent,
cold, and rude.
Extraversion ranges from gregarious, energetic, and self-dramatizing to shy,
unassertive, and withdrawn.
Conscientiousness ranges from careful, neat, and dependable to impulsive,
careless, and irresponsible.
Openness ranges from imaginative, curious, and original to dull,
unimaginative, and literal-minded.
Collectively, the Big Five personality factors can be used to describe or summarize an
individual’s personality structure.
In applying the “Big Five” to describe (a) a close family member and (b) a person for
whom he/she has worked, a student should focus on the trait labels at the ends of each
continuum. Using these labels, students should describe their perceptions and support
their descriptions with actual examples of behavior or expressed attitudes. The students
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 73
should also know how these specific traits affected the person’s behavior toward them.
5.
Identify a specific personality factor that seems particularly interesting to you. Provide
an example from your own work or other experience of an instance when this factor
seemed strongly related to your behavior or that of another person.
This question can be addressed in terms of either the “Big Five” personality factors or the
following specific personality traits: self-esteem, locus of control, goal orientation, and
introversion and extraversion. Each personality trait can be argued to be important for
managerial behavior. This importance can be demonstrated by citing the relationships
each trait has with various job behaviors and/or job performance. Examples should
illustrate how the selected personality dimensions seem to be reflected in actual behavior.
6.
Can a person change their attitude without changing their behavior? Give an example?
Attitudes and their effects on behavior can be extremely complex. For instance, people
who hold a positive attitude toward their job may not necessarily work harder because
they come late to work or fail to show up. For this reason, performance of a specific task,
such as preparing a particular monthly report, can’t necessarily be predicted on the basis
of a general attitude. Never-the-less, attitudes of hope, job satisfaction, and organizational
commitment are more closely linked to performance than other attitudes, and studies
have shown, for example, that the level of job satisfaction and organizational
performance are linked. Employees like working for John Yokoyama at the Pike Place
Fish Market in Seattle, for instance, because he encourages them to work hard, have fun,
be kind, and develop positive attitudes.
7.
Describe how you can develop your hope attitude to improve your performance.
A simple definition of hope is as follows:
Hope= mental willpower + waypower to achieve goals.
The value of this concept is that it applies to a variety of work-related attitudes. The highhope person enjoys the pursuit of challenging goals and pursues them with a positive
attitude. There are at least three ways to increase the level of hope. The first is to set clear
goals that have benchmarks to track their progress toward the goal; vague goals may
lessen hope because the result sought is unclear and tracking progress therefore is
difficult, if not impossible. Setting goals that are slightly higher than previous levels of
performance can expand the range of hope and show which goals are best. The second is
to break overall, long-term goals into small subgoals or steps. Small steps provide
positive mental maps about how to reach a goal. The third is to figure out how to be
motivated to reach the goals.
74 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
8.
Don Tuttle, CEO of Top Gun Ventures, believes that satisfied workers are more
productive than less satisfied workers. Do you agree or disagree with him? Explain.
I agree with Don Tuttle. Job satisfaction is a collection of attitudes one has toward a job
or toward work. In other words, job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional
state resulting from the individual’s work experiences. If an individual’s work is
congruent with his or her needs, expectations, and values, job satisfaction should result.
The level of job satisfaction is important because of its impact on certain crucial
employee behaviors. Dissatisfied employees have a higher absenteeism rate, a higher
turnover rate, and more physical and mental health problems. Absenteeism, turnover, and
health problems are costly for organizations.
9.
Think of an organization that you have worked for. What factors seemed to influence your
commitment to this organization?
Organizational commitment refers to the strength of an employee’s involvement in and
identification with the organization. Strong commitment is characterized by:



A support of and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values.
A willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the
organization.
A desire to remain with the organization.
The level of commitment is also related to various job behaviors. Employees with a
higher level of organizational commitment have lower absenteeism and turnover rates,
are relatively more productive, are more goal-directed in the pursuit of their work
assignments, and waste less time at work. Because of these relationships, high levels of
commitment prove less costly for the organization.
Students should describe the organizational effects of the levels of commitment they have
witnessed.
10.
How can you use the model of emotions to increase your performance?
Understanding the role that anticipatory emotions play in reaching a goal can be very
useful in increasing performance. Anticipatory emotions refer to the emotions that you
believe you will feel after achievement or failure of reaching your goal. The key
motivational device is to have each person imagine the positive emotions felt upon
reaching a goal. The more desirable the implications are for achieving the goal, the more
intense will be the anticipated emotions from achieving the goal. If the anticipatory
emotions are of sufficient intensity, a person will engage in the behaviors needed to reach
a goal----developing a plan, outlining steps needed to implement a plan, and exerting
effort to carry it out.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 75
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.24
Experiential Exercise: Self Competency--- What Are Your Cultural Values?
Experiential Exercise: Self Competency---What are Your Cultural Values?
The questionnaire measures each of the five basic culture dimensions. Your score can range from
5 to 35. The numbers in parentheses that follow the title of the value are the question numbers.
Add the scores for these questions to arrive at your total score for each cultural value. The higher
your score, the more you demonstrate the cultural value.
Value 1: Uncertainty Avoidance. A high score indicates a culture in which people often try to
make the future predictable by closely following rules and regulations. Organizations try to avoid
uncertainty by creating rules and rituals that give the illusion of stability.
Value 2: Individualism/collectivism. A high score indicates collectivism, or a culture in which
people believe that group success is more important than individual achievement. Loyalty to the
group comes before all else. Employees are loyal and emotionally dependent on their
organization.
Value 3: Power Distance. A high score indicates a culture in which people believe in the
unequal distribution of power among segments of the culture. Employees fear disagreeing with
their bosses and are seldom asked for their opinions by their bosses.
Value 4: Long-term orientation. A high score indicates a culture in which people value
persistence, thrift, and respect for tradition. Young employees are expected to follow orders
given to them by their elders and delay gratification of their material, social, and emotional
needs.
Value 5: Gender role orientation. A high score indicates masculinity, or a culture in which
people value the acquisition of money and other material things. Successful managers are viewed
as aggressive, tough, and competitive. Earnings, recognition, and advancement are important.
Quality of life and cooperation are not as highly prized.
76 | Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences
CHAPTER 2: POWER POINT 2.25
Experiential Exercise: Self Competency---What’s Your Emotional IQ
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE:
Experiential Exercise: Self Competency—What’s Your Emotional IQ
This 32-item questionnaire, found in the text, is a self-assessment of emotional intelligence, an
individual personality difference that is important for career success. Emotional intelligence
refers to how well an individual handles herself/himself and others rather than how smart she/he
is in terms of technical skills. Four scores can be developed from the questionnaire responses: a
self-awareness score, a social awareness score, a self-management score, and a social skills score.
Instructions are provided in the text for computing each of these scores. Interpretation guidelines
are provided as well.
Two discussion questions are provided. These questions, along with suggested answers, are
presented below.
1.
Use Emotional Intelligence (EQ) to describe a friend. What are this person’s strengths and
weaknesses?
Students can evaluate a friend based on the following:

Self-awareness: recognizing one’s emotions, strengths and limitations, and capabilities
and how these affect others. These people accurately assess their strengths and
limitations, and have a strong sense of their self-worth and capabilities.

Social empathy: sensing what others need in order for them to develop. These people are
good at understanding others, taking an active interest in their concerns, empathizing with
them, and recognizing the needs others.

Self-motivation: being results oriented and pursuing goals beyond what is required.
These people always want to do things better and seek out feedback from others about
their performance. They are passionate about their work.

Social skills: the ability of a person to influence others. These people build effective
bonds between people. Often, they appear to be socializing with co-workers but they are
actually working to build solid relationships at work.
Chapter 2: Understanding Individual Differences | 77
2.
Is it genetic or shaped by experience?
EQ most likely results from the interaction of genetics and experience. Heredity likely
endows a person with a particular emotional propensity. What the individual does with
that propensity is a function of the person’s experiences throughout life.