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SPORT
The Nature of Sport
• For most of us, when we think of sport we think of certain activities, exercise and
spectator events; to Sociologists, sport – a set of competitive activities in which
winners and losers are determined by physical performance within a set of
established rules
– While sport is an important aspect of recreation, many forms of recreation do not involve
sport (i.e. two skiers spontaneously decide to race one another – contest, yes; sport, no)
• As we have seen, institutions (i.e. family, education, government and economic
systems, and religion) fulfill basic needs and reflect the most important aspects of
society
• So where does sport come in?
– Sport teaches some of the basic values of society
– Promotes attachment to society
– Sport aids in identification of self with society
• In the U.S. sport plays a central role because it reflects our culture’s emphasis on
achievement
The Nature of Sport
• To quote Vince Lombardi, “Winning is
not everything. It is the only thing.”
– This is why we sport today continues
to be dominated by achievementoriented values
• Sport reflects society…so not
surprising, males dominate the world
of sports
– We do see some changes like the UT
Vols women’s basketball team brings in
more fans than the men’s
– U.S. Women’s Soccer Team is hands
down more successful than the U.S.
Men’s
The Nature of Sport
• This relationship between sport, society and culture can be seen best in what is
called sport subculture – a group with distinct roles, values, norms, and beliefs
that is organized around a sport activity.
– i.e. is violence among hockey players due to involvement in a “subculture of violence”?
• In this kind of subculture, violence is the expected response to a perceived challenge or
insult; following the norm is essential then in acquiring and maintaining honor, especially
when challenges are associated with masculinity
• What Sociologists Michael Smith found was that hockey players favor violence more than
non-players AND because of expectations set by coaches and teammates, many hockey
players act violently during games
– i.e. non-team sports like thoroughbred racing
• Thoroughbred jockeys have developed a strong emphasis on displaying dignity,
maintaining integrity and reaming cool under pressure…the ideal within the subculture is
ta fiery animal with a cool rider
The Nature of Sport
“The cool jockey can wait patiently
with a horse in a pocket and get
through on the inside, risking the
possibility that there will be non
opening. Coolness is waiting far
back in the pack, risking the
possibility that his horse will not
“get up” in time. Coolness is
sparing the whip on a frontrunning horse when another
animal has pressed into the lead,
risking the possibility that once
his horse is passed he will not get
started again. All these instances
are taken by observers as
instances of a jockey’s character
– In short, moral character is
coolness in risky situations.”
- Scott, 1981
The Nature of Sport
In layman’s terms…Jockeys
who fail to display gallantry,
integrity, and coolness (the
same qualities that are
expected of them by the
owners, trainers and fellow
jockeys) do NOT receive their
choice of horses and therefore
win few races.
Failing to take risks = missed
opportunities
THEORECTICAL PERSPECITIVES
Culture & Sport
• Sport is a major social activity through which culture is not only created, but also
reinforced
• “American sport embodies American values – striving for excellence, winning,
individual and team competition, and materialism. Parents want their children to
participate in sport because participation teaches them the basic values of
American society and builds character.”
- Stanley Eitzen, 1993
• Sociologists agree that sport mirrors society, they disagree over which over the
social implications of sport
– FUNCTIONALIST – concentrate on the benefits of sport
– CONFLICT THEORISTS – concentrate on the social downside of sport
– SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS – concentrate on personal meanings derived from sport
FUNCTIONALISISM
• What is the role of sports?
– Functionalists believe sport is important because it helps society run more smoothly
by performing 4 important functions:
1. Sport teaches basic beliefs, norms, and values
•
2.
Sport promotes a sense of social identification
•
3.
Team binds people to their community and nation – i.e. Clevelanders are united by their
Browns, Indians and Cavaliers
Sport offers a safe release of aggressive feelings generated by the frustrations,
anxieties, and stains of modern life
•
4.
Sport readies you for adult roles i.e. teaches you to work in organizations, teamwork,
etc. We also see children exposed to competitive sport become more achievement
motivated than those who are not exposed
It’s socially acceptable to yell and scream for an athletic team
Sport encourages development of character
•
Hard work, discipline, and self-sacrifced that is demanded by most sports teams
become part of an athlete’s value system
FUNCTIONALISISM
• What are the social dysfunctions of sport?
– Since sport reflects society, it draws on achievement-oriented values that can be
intensified to an extreme
– When achievement and winning come to be seen as the primary goals of sport, any
method of winning (including violence and cheating) may be encouraged
1. Violence
•
•
2.
In High School football, aggression is defended as preparation for “real life”
Pressures are intensified at the professional level where many sports have developed
an informal “enforcer” – a team member whose major responsibility is to intimidate,
provoke and even injury opponents
Cheating
•
May not be as easy to always identify
FUNCTIONALISISM
VIOLENCE
CHEATING
CONFLICT THEORY
• Who has the power and how do the elites use power to satisfy their own interests?
– To conflict theorists, sport is a social institution in which the most powerful oppress,
manipulate, coerce, and exploit others
– Point to the ways sport mirrors the unequal distribution of power and money in
society
“When the game is over, the enthusiasm dies, the solidarity runs short, and disharmony
in other relations reasserts itself. Much as one hour a week cannot answer to the
religious impulse, one game a week cannot answer to the solidarity needs of the racist,
sexists or elitists.
- Young, 1986
•
Basic social class divisions will continue to exist and to affect social relationships in a
community even if the local team just won the World Series or Superbowl
CONFLICT THEORY
• Who has the power and how do the elites use power to satisfy their own interests?
– SCANDALS!
•
•
In both college and professional sports, Americans are constantly reading about
athletes who are taking drugs, cheating in school, accepting illegitimate “gifts” for
recruitment, etc.
BOTH coaches and athletes are involved in these scandals which conflict theorists use to
point to the widespread acceptance of these practices to “get ahead”
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
• Concerned with the symbols of sport
– The meanings and interpretations of these symbols are important because they affect
the self-concepts and relationships of the people involved
• To best explain this, we will look at the work of Gary Alan Fine who studied Little
League for 3 years
–
Meanings
•
Much of activities of the parents and coaches is to teach the rules of the game and
values, but what we discovered was that these 10-12 year-old boys formed their own
interpretations
–
–
Hard work, competition = “masculine” value of dominance, “toughness” and risky behavior
Social interaction and self-concepts
•
•
The boys’ behavior convinced parents and coaches that the boys understood and
accepted the values
Boys then get praised for this behavior, which encourages them to continue it; “weaker”
peers then saw a loss in self-esteem for not living up to those expectations
SOCIAL ISSUES IN SPORT
Sport & Social Mobility
• Many athletes DO use sport as a means out of poverty and many minority
members work their way out of poverty through sport
• Question remains, does sport really promote social mobility? Upward mobility?
– Whatever sport they play, college athletes tend to be better educated, earn more
money and have higher occupational prestige than their fathers
– Some people point to greats like Michael Jordan and Deion Sanders and argue that
sport is a social class escalator for minorities
– Some make the argument that the emphasis on sport is HARMFUL because it diverts
attention away from learning the academic and business-related skills that are
necessary for success in mainstream America
•
Minority members who spend their youth sharpening and honing in on their athletic
skills at the expense of their general education will very likely be casualties of an
unrealizable dream of wealth and glory
High School Athletes’ Chance of Going Pro
Sport & Racism
• One very clear sign of discrimination shows up in stacking – assignment of
players to less central positions on the basis of race and ethnicity
– Central positions – involve leadership and decision-making responsibilities and thus
offer a greater likelihood of influencing the outcome of the game
•
i.e. in football, we see very few black quarterbacks
• Is there salary fairness?
– Discrimination is pay hugely exists at the professional level
•
African Americans in the majority of professional sports, on average, are paid as much
or more than their white counterparts…when level of performance is controlled,
discrimination that discrimination appears
–
Basically, African Americans must perform better than whites to avoid pay
discrimination
– Discrimination in representation
•
•
•
As on 2001, only one major sports franchise in the U.S. was owned by minorities
No minorities in the NFL or MLB were board chairs, presidents or CEOs
Only 21% of NBA head coaches were members of minority groups in 2001
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Sport & Sexism
• Prior to legislation like Title IX, schools didn’t have to have fund or even provide equal
opportunities for girls and women’s athletics
• Consequences of sexism?
– Stereotypes have traditionally discouraged females from playing sports
•
•
It was seen as “unfeminine,” if you ran your uterus would fall out, etc.
Denied equal access to organized sport
– Women coaching in women’s programs declining
•
Although Title IX increased equality for female athletes, it led to a DECREASE in the number of
coaching and administrative positions held by women
–
–
2000: more than HALF of the NCAA women’s teams were coached by men
Some even argue that Title IX could even be the reason for the decline because as the money and
prestige has increased, men have found these coaching jobs more attractive…and with men being
overwhelming in charge of athletic programs and the hiring, they are more likely to hire males
– Representation at the national level
•
•
Even women who become professional levels earn significantly less than their male
counterparts
GOLF – leading money winner on the men’s tour typically earns more than TWICE as much as
the leading money winner on the women’s tour