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Chapter 8: The Unification of
China
In Search of Political and Social Order

The late centuries of the Zhou created political confusion in China and led eventually to the chaos known as the Period of the
Warring States (403-221 bce)
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During those same centuries, there also took place a cultural flowering that left a mark on Chinese society

The political turmoil helps explain the cultural creativity of the era

Forced people to reflect on the nature of society and the proper roles of human beings in society

Some sought to identify principles that would restore political and social order
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Others concerned themselves with a search for individual tranquility apart from society
Three schools of thought would emerge from this era of confusion and chaos- Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism
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These would exercise a deep influence on Chinese political and cultural traditions
Confucianism
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Confucius
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The first Chinese thinker who addressed the problem of political and social order in a straightforward manner was Kong
Fuzi (551-479 bce), or Confucius
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
For years, sought an influential post in the Lu Court where he came from
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Did not get along well with the people at court
He refused to compromise his beliefs in the interest of political expediency
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Insisted on principles that clashed with state policy
When he realized he would never attain anything more than a minor post in Lu, Confucius left in search of a more
prestigious appointment
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For 10 years he traveled to courts throughout northern China, but found none willing to accept his help
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In 484 bce, he returned to Lu and died 5 years later
Confucian Ideas
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Confucius never realized his ambitions; he did serve as an educator as well as political advisor
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In that capacity he left an enduring mark on Chinese society
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He attracted numerous disciples who aspired to political careers
Some of his pupils compiled his teachings and sayings in a book known as the Analects
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Profoundly influenced Chinese political and cultural traditions
Confucius’s thought was moral, ethical, and political in character
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Practical thought: did not address abstruse philosophical questions b/c he thought they would not help to solve the
political and social problems of the day
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Did not deal with religious questions- thought it went beyond the capacity of moral human intelligence
Did not concern himself much with the state

Thought that political and social harmony arose from the proper ordering of human relationships rather than from
state offices
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In an era with weak bureaucratic institutions, Confucius believed the best way to create good gov’t was to fill positions
w/well educated and conscientious individuals
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Confucius concentrated on the formation of junzi- “superior individuals”
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They would take a broad view of public affairs

Did not allow personal interests to influence their judgments
W/out a formal education system, Confucius had his disciples study works of poetry and history from the Zhou dynasty

Believed they provided insight into human nature

Book of Songs, Book of History, Book of Rites
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Concentrated on their practical value for prospective administrators
Due to Confucius, literary works from the Zhou became the main texts of the traditional Chinese education

For over 2,000 years, prospective bureaucrats would proceed through a cycle of studies built upon the one Confucius
developed in the 5th century bce
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To Confucius, advanced education was only a part of the preparation needed by the ideal gov’t official

More important was the possession of a strong sense of moral character
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Capacity to deliver wise and fair judgments
Confucius encouraged his students to cultivate high ethical standards
Hone their faculties of analysis and judgment
Confucian Values
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Confucius emphasized several values in particular
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One was ren, an attitude of kindness and benevolence or a sense of humanity
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These individuals possessing ren were courteous, respectful, diligent, loyal
Another quality was li, a sense of propriety
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Called for individuals to behave in appropriate fashion

Treat all other humans with courtesy while showing respect and deference to elders or superiors
Another quality was xiao, filial piety, which reflected the high significance of the family in Chinese society

Obliged children to respect their parents and other family elders
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Look after their welfare
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Support them in old age
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Remember them with their ancestors after death
Confucius emphasize ren, li, and xiao b/c he believed that individuals who possessed these traits would gain influence in
larger society

Those who disciplined themselves and properly molded their characters would not only possess self-control but also
could lead others by example

Only thought enlightened leadership by strong individuals would restore political and social order and stability to China
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Confucius’ goal was two-fold
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To cultivate personal morality for its own sake
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The creation of junzi who could bring order and stability to China
Since Confucius expressed his thought in general terms, later disciples could adapt his teachings to the problems of their
time
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This flexibility is why it had such long-standing power in Chinese society
Two of his later disciples, Mencius and Xunzi, illustrate the ways Confucian thought lent itself to elaboration and adaptation
Mencius
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Mencius (372-289 bce) was the principal spokesman for the Confucian school of thought
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During the period of the Warring States, he traveled throughout China, consulting with rulers and offering advice on
political issues
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Mencius believed that human nature was good
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Argued for policies that would allow human nature to influence society as a whole
Placed special emphasis on the virtue of ren,
Advocated gov’t by benevolence and humanity
This principle implied that rulers would levy light taxes, avoid wars, support education, and encourage harmony and
cooperation
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Critics charged that Mencius held a naïve view of human nature

Argued that his policies would not succeed in the real world of human interest, wills, and ambition
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Mencius’ advice had little practical effect during his lifetime
Over the long term, his ideas deeply influenced the Confucian tradition

Since about the 10th century ce, many Chinese scholars have considered Mencius as the most authoritative of
Conucius’ early thinkers
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Xunzi
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Like Confucius and Mencius, Xunzi (298-238 bce) was a learned man
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Unlike his predecessors, he served in the gov’t for many years as an administrator
His practical experience encouraged him to develop a view of humans as selfishly pursuing their own interests
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No matter the effects their actions ad on others
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Resisted making any contributions voluntarily to the larger society
Where Mencius emphasized ren, Xunzi emphasized li
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Advocated the establishment of clear, well-publicized standards of conduct
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Would set limits on the pursuit of individual interests
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This optimism was a basic characteristic of Confucian thought
Explains the high value Confucians place on education and public behavior
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Accounts for their activist approach to public affairs
Confucians involved themselves in society
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Sought gov’t positions, and made conscientious efforts to solve political and social problems
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Punish those who neglected their obligations to society
Like Mencius and Confucius, Xunzi believed it was possible to improve human beings and restore order
Promote harmony in public life
The Confucians did not win universal praise for their efforts

To some, Confucian activism represented little more than misspent energy
Daoism
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Intro
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The Daoists were the most prominent critics of the Confucians
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Had developed in response to the turbulence of the Warring States Period like the Confucians
Unlike the Confucians, the Daoists considered it pointless to devote energies to problems that had no solution
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Instead, the Daoists devoted their time to reflection and introspection
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Hoped they could understand the natural principles that governed the world
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Live in harmony with the natural world
Daoists believed that over time, this approach would bring harmony to society as a whole
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Confucians would instead engage in social activism
People would cease to meddle in affairs they could not understand or control
Laozi and the Daodejing
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The founder of Daoism was Laozi who lived during the 6th century bce
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While Laozi may have existed, it is given that several thinkers contributed to the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of
Virtue)
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Was a reasoned compendium of Daoist views
The Dao
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The basic exposition of Daoist belief that is ascribed to Laozi
Another famed work of Daoism was the Zhuangzi, written by Zhuangzi (369-286 bce)
Attempted to understand the fundamental character and order of the world and nature
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The central concept of Daoism is Dao, which means “the way (of nature/of the cosmos”
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An elusive idea that was not usually characterized in a positive way
The Daodejing considered the dao as a passive force that acted in harmony with the principle s of nature
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The dao resembles water- soft and yielding, yet so poverful it ill erode anything it its path
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The cavity of a pot or hub of a wheel- nothing, yet make these useful tools
Applied to human behavior, it followed the humans should tailor their behavior to its passive and yielding nature
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Living in harmony with Dao mean retreating from engagement with politics
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Ambition and activism had not solved the problems of man
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Human striving had only created a state of chaos
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The proper response to this was to cease striving and instead live with a sense of senseless detachment
The Doctrine of Wuwei
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Early Daoists recognized the virtue of wuwei as the most important virtue
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Disengagement from the competitive exertions and active involvement in the affairs of the world
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Required individuals to refrain from advanced education and from personal striving
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Instead, wanted individuals to act selflessly and live simply and in harmony with nature
Wuwei also had political and social implications
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The less gov’t, the better
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The Daodejing envisioned a world of tiny, self-sufficient communities
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These areas had no desire to conquer one another
Daoists attacked their philosophical rivals (see: Confucians) for dwelling on trivial and superficial issues instead of living in
harmony with nature
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Political Implications of Daoism
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Daoism served as a peaceful and passive counter to Confucian activism
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Encouraged the cultivation of knowledge that was appealing to both Daoists and Confucian alike
Since neither of the two philosophies were exclusive faiths it has been possible for ppl to have a Confucian public life and
Daoist private life
Legalism

Intro
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Neither Confucian activism or Daoist retreat was able to solve the problems of the Warring States period
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Order returned only after the emergence of a third school of thought- Legalism

Promoted a practical and ruthlessly efficient approach to politics
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Did not concern themselves with morality, ethics, or propriety like the Confucians; or the place of humans in nature
like the Doaists
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Legalist doctrine came from ppl who engaged in politics in the late 4th century bce
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Most notable was Shang Yang (~390-338 bce) who was the chief minister of the duke of the Qin
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While a cleve and efficient admin, was also despise and feared due to his power and ruthlessness
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When his patron died, Shang Yang was quickly killed by those at court
Han Feizi
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Instead, they devoted their attention to the state, which they looked to strengthen and expand at all costs
Shang Yang
The most systematic of Legalist theories was Han Feizi (280-233 bce), a student of Xunzi
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Synthesized all the Legalist doctrines into a collection of essays on statecraft
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Was forced to take his life in the qin court
Legalist Doctrine
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Foundations of a statee’s strength, according to Legalists, were farming and military
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The Legalists sought to channel as many ppl into farming and military as possible
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Discouraged other lines of work since it didn’t directly benefit the state
Wanted to harness the energies of subject peoples by means of clear and strict laws
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Distringuished them from Confucians who relied on ritual, custom, education, propriety, and examples of junzi to
induce individuals to behave appropriately
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Provided swift punishment for violators
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Believed if ppl feared to commit small crimes, they would hesitate even more before committing great crimes
Created collective responsibilitybefore the law
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The legalists believed those influences were not powerful enough to motivate people
Impose a strict legal regimen that outlined expectations
All members of a family or community were liable for punishment
These principles did not give the Legalists much popularity
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The legalists principles did quickly produce results for rulers who adopted them
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Ended the Period of the Warring States, bringing about the unification of China
The Unification of China
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Intro
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During the period of the Warring States, several regional adopted elements of the Legalist principles
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The most enthusiastic response to Legalism came from the Qin state in western China
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Soon dominated its neighbors and imposed centralized imperial rule throughout China
While only surviving for a few years, but the succeeding Han dynasty followed the Qin example by governing China
through a centralized imperial admin
The Qin Dynasty
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The Kingdom of Qin
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During the 4th and 3rd centuries bce, the Qin state underwent a remarkable round of econ, political, and military
development
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Shang Yang encouraged peasant cultivators to migrate to the Qin state
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By giving them private plots and allowing them to get most of their profits, his policy boosted farming production
By granting land rights to individuals, this weakened the strength of the hereditary aristocratic classes
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Allowed the Qin to establish centralized, bureaucratic rule throughout their state
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Meanwhile, they devoted the newfound wealth of their state to the organization of a powerful army w/iron weapons
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During the 3rd century bce, the Qin kingdom gradually grew at the expense of other Chinese states
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Finally they brought China under one state for the first time
The First Emperor
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In 221 bce, the king of Qin proclaimed himself the 1st emperor
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Qin Shihuangdi (r.221-210 bce)
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Lasted only 14 years
The Qin dynasty had a major significance despite its hort life
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Like the Achaemenid Empire
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Established a tradition of centralized imperial rule that provided large-scale political organization over the long term
Shihuangdi ignored the nobility, ruling through a centralized bureaucracy
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Governed from Xianyang near the early Zhou capital
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The remained of China was divided into admin provinces and districts
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Disarmed regional military forces and destroyed fortresses
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Built roads to facilitate communication and the movement of armies
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Drafted laborers by the 100,000s to build defensive walls
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Entrusted the communication and implementation of his policies to officer of the central gov
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Already plenty constructed by northern regional kings to stave off northern nomads
The Burning of the books
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Likely that China welcomed the political stability introduced by the Qn
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Did not win universal acceptance
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Confucians, Daoists, launched a vigorous campaign of criticism
In an effort to reassert his authority, the 1st emperor ordered execution for those who criticized his regime
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Demanded the burning of all books of philosophy, ethics, history, and literature
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Exempted work on medicine, fortune-telling, and farming (had value)
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Spared the history of the Qins tate
For a generation, there was no open discussion of classical literary of philosophical works
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When it became safe to speak out in the open, scholars began a long and painstaking task of reconstructing the
suppressed texts
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Qin Centralization
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The 1st emperor launched several ideas to enhance the unity of China
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In keeping w/centralization techniques, he standardized the laws, currencies, weights, and measures of the various
regions of China
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Often conflicted with one another
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Had hampered trade and interaction across state boundaries
The roads and bridges built throughout the realm encouraged economic integration
Standardized Script
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Uniform coinage and legal standards encouraged the integration of China’s various regions into a more tightly knit society
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Previously, regional states had organized their own legal and econ systems
Even more important was the standardization of Chinese script
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Before the Qin, all regions of China used script derived from the one employed at the Shang court
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Had developed along different lines and became unrecognizable
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The regions of China continued to use different spoken languages as they do today, but wrote in a common script
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Enabled the communication in writing across linguistic boundaries
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Despite his ruthlessness, Qin Shihuangdi is one o the most important figures in Chinese history
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Set a precedent for centralized imperial rule which remained the norm in China until the 20th century
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Also pointed China in a direction of political and cultural unity which has mostly stayed the same until this day
Tomb of the First Emperor
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Qin Shihuangdi died in 210 bce and was put into a lavish tomb
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Conscripted millions of laborers from all parts of China to work on ambitious public works
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Despite increasing productivity, they also generated tremendous ill will among laborers who had to leave their lands
Revolts began in the year after his death
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In 207 bce waves of rebels overwhelmed the Qin court, slaughtering gov’t officials and burning state buildings
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The Qin quickly dissolved into chaos
The Early Han Dynasty

Liu Bang
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The bloody end of the Qin could have ended centralized imperial rule
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Despite attempts by regional governors and generals tried to carve China into regions, centralized rule returned
almost immediately
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Largely due to a commander named Liu Bang
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Surrounded himself w/good advisors and had the loyalty of his troops
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By 206 bce, he had restored order throughout China and established himself as the head of a new dynasty
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Called it the Han dynasty in honors of his native land
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Became one of the longest and most influential dynasties in China
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Lasted from 206 bce-220 ce w/a brief period of usurped rule (9-23 ce)
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Divided into Early Han and Late Han
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The Han dynasty consolidated the centralized imperial rule that the Qin had created
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During the Early Han, emperors ruled from Chang’an
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Became cultural capital of China
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Built w/wood, so none of their architecture survived
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Would later move to Luoyang
Early Han Policies
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Early on, Liu Bang tried to find a middle ground between decentralized political alliances of the Zhou and the
centralization of the Qin
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Zhou decentralization encouraged political chaos according to Liu Bang
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Also thought that centralization had problems
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Allotted large landholdings to imperial family members
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Quickly learned reliance on his family didn’t guarantee support
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In 200 bce, an army of nomadic Xiongnu besieged Liu Bang, almost capturing him
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Escaped, but did not receive the support he expected from his family members
After this, Liu Bang and his successors followed a policy of centralization
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Reclaimed land from family members, absorbing them into the imperial domain
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Entrusted political responsibilities to admin bureaucrats
Much of the success of the Han dynasty was due to the long reign of “The Martial Emperor”, Han Wudi
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Han Wudi worked to increase the authority and prestige of the central gov’t
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Built an enormous bureaucracy
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Sent imperial policies to implement his policies and maintain order in admin districts
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Continued Qin policy of building roads and canals to facilitate trade and communication
To finance his bureaucracy, he levied taxes on farming, trade, and craft industries
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Established imperial monopolies on the production of goods like iron and salt
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Created a liquor industry under state supervision
In creating this massive gov’t, Han Wudi faced a problem of recruitment
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Recruited thousands of educated individuals to run his bureaucracy
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However, most education took place at an individual level
Confucian Education System
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Han Wudi addressed this in 124 bce by establishing an imperial institute of higher learning
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Had two policies in particular: administrative centralization and imperial expansion
Han Centralization
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Hoped he could exercise control over their policies
The Martial Emperor, Han Wudi
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Would support his rule
Also divided the empire into admin districts governed by officials who served at the emperor’s pleasure
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Provided little incentive for imperial family members to support the dynasty
Liu Bang tried to have the best of both
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Regional governors were powerful enough to resist the emperor
Took Confucianism as the basis for its curriculum despite Han Wudi being a Legalist
Ensured the long-term survival of the Confucian tradition by establishing it as the official imperial ideology
Han Imperial Expansion
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While centralizing power, he also pursued a vigorous foreign policy
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Invaded northern Vietnam and Korea, bringing them into the Han dynasty
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Ruled both through a Chinese-style gov’t
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The Xiongnu
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The greatest foreign challenge from Han Wudi came from Xiongnu
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Nomadic people from the steppes of central Asia
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Were superb horsemen w/worse weaponry
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Mobility gave them a distinct advantage
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When they couldn’t meet their needs through trade, they mounted raids
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During the reign of Modu, the Xiongnu ruled a vast federation of nomadic people from the Aral to the Yellow Sea
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Confucianism followed the Han armies into their colonies
Over the centuries, Korea and Vietnam education drew their inspiration from Confucianism
During the early days of the Han, they tried to satisfy the Xiongnu by paying them tribute or by arranging marriages
Han Expansion into Central Asia
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Han Wudi decided to go on the offensive against the Xiongnu
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Invaded Central Asia with a vast army (100k troops), bringing much of the XIongnu empire under Han control
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Prevented the Xiongnu from maintaining their empire
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The Xiongnu would soon fall into disarray
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The Han would have hegemony in east and central Asia
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Before long, there would be economic and social problems
From Economic Prosperity to Social Disorder
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Intro
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Already during previous dynasties, a productive farming economy had supported the emergence of complex society in
China
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Continued during the Qin and Han
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Supported the development of craft industries like the forging of iron tools and the weaving of silk
During the Han, China experienced social and economic problems
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Land became concentrated in the hands of a small, elite wealthy class
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Social tensions led to banditry, rebellion, and the removal of the Han from rule for a short time
While the Han still ruled, they presided over a weakened realm
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By the 3rd century ce, the Han dynasty was brought to an end
Productivity and Prosperity During the Early Han
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Patriarchal Social Order
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The structure of Chinese society during the Qin/Han era was similar to that of the Zhou
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Patriarchal households averaged 5 ppl
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Some aristocratic families had large numbers of family members in the same compound
During the Han, moralists wanted to enhance the authority of the patriarchal heads
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Emphasized filial piety and women’s subordination
Ban Zhao, Women Scholar
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Ban Zhao (45-120 ce) wrote a treatise for women
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Argued education should be available for all children
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Agreed with Confucian morality that the virtues most appropriate were humility, obedience, subservience, devotion
to the men in their families
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The vast majority of Chinese ppl worked in the country cultivating grains and veggies
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During the Han, the iron industry entered rapid growth, allowing all tools of the farmer to be iron made
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Created a farming surplus, which allowed many Chinese to produce manufactured goods and engage in trade
Iron Metallurgy
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Significance of iron went beyond farming
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Chinese entrepreneurs had discovered how to make cast iron by the 4th century bce
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Production surged during the Han
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Became so important that Han Wudi placed it under state control
Had military implications
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Suits of armor
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Sericulture and textile production became an important industry
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Started in the 4th millennium bce
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Only in the Han did it expand from the Yellow River valley
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Developed especially in the southern regions Sichuan and Guangdong
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Thrived after the establishment of long-distance trade w/the western areas in 2nd century bce
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Chinese silk was desired due to their advanced sericulture techniques
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Strength and sharpness of their weapons helped explain their success militarily
Silk Textiles
Fed them mulberry leaves and delicately unraveled their cocoon (not done in other areas)
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Became prized in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, the Roman Empire
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The trade in silk led to the creation of a series of intricate trade networks known as Silk Roads
Paper
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Han craftsmen also invented paper
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Had earlier written on bamboo strips and silk fabrics
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Also inscribed on oracle bones and bronze
Before 100 ce Chinese craftsmen fashioned hemp, bark, and textile into sheets of paper
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Less expensive than silk and easier to write on than bamboo
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Paper soon became the preferred medium
Classical China was an incubator for technological innovation
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Found ways to improve on earlier inventions and devise entirely new inventions
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Right before the Qin and Han dynasties, military engineers created primitive crossbows
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Invented specifically designed horse collars
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First century ce, nautical engineers invented the ship’s rudder, simplifying steering
Economic and Social Difficulties
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Intro
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In spite of economic prosperity, China began to experience econ and social difficulties in the Early Han period
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Military cost and the central Asian expansion of Han Wudi caused severe economic strain
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Expeditions against the Xiongnu
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Establishment of farming colonies in central Asia were expensive undertakings
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Raised taxes
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Confiscated land and personal property from wealthy individuals
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Rapidly consumed the surplus wealth
To finance his ventures, Han Wudi:
Said they had violated imperial laws
While these did not kill industry and commerce in China, they did discouraged investment in manufacturing and trading
enterprises
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Social Tensions
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Itself had a dampening effect on the larger economy
Distinctions between the rich and poor grew wider over the course of the Han dynasty
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By the 1st century bce, social and economic differences generated serious tensions
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Peasants in hard-pressed regions began to organize rebellions
Land Distribution
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A major problem concerned the distribution of land
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Individual economic problems brought on by poor harvests, high taxes, or crushing burdens of debt forced many
small landowners to sell their property
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Usually under unfavorable conditions
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Sometimes had to forfeit their land in exchange for debt cancellation
In extreme cases, individuals had to sell themselves and their families into slavery to satisfy creditors
Owners of large estates not only increased the size of their holdings
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Absorbed the property of their less fortunate neighbors
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Also increased the efficiency of their estates by employing cheap labor
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Sometimes were slaves, other times in tenant farmers
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Tenant farmers had to deliver up to half their produce to the landowner
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By the end of the 1st century bce, land had accumulated in the hands of a relatively small # of individuals who owned
vast estates
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Ever-increasing numbers of peasant cultivators led difficult lives w/few prospects
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Landless peasants became restive, and Chinese society faced growing problems of banditry and sporadic rebellion

Because the Han depended heavily on the political cooperation of large landowners, they did not attempt any serious
reforms

The Reign of Wang Mang

Tensions came to a head in the first century ce when a powerful minister named Wang Mang attempted a thorough plan
of reform

In 6 ce, a two year old boy inherited the throne


Since he couldn’t govern, Wang Mang served as his regent
Many believed Wang Mang was a better ruler than the Han family, and urged him to claim the throne

In 9 ce, Wang Mang took the throne, announcing the mandate of heaven had been passed

Would then introduce wide-ranging reforms that have given him the nickname “socialist emperor”

The most important reforms were about landed property



Limited the amt of land that a family could hold

Ordered officials to break up large estates, redistribute them and provide landless individuals w/property
Despite his good intentions, the socialist emperor tried these policies without proper communication

Landlords resisted the policy that threatened their holdings

Peasants were even upset
After several years of chaos, there was also poor harvests and famine


Sparked huge revolts against his rule
In 23 ce, a coalition of landlords and peasants ended the reign of Wang Mang
The Later Han Dynasty

Intro

Within two years the Han recovered and returned to power


Ruled a weakened realm

The Later Han emperors abandoned Chang’an and established a new capital at Luoyang

In the early years of the Late Han, the emperors ruled w/vigor like Liu Bang and Han Wudi

Regained control of the centralized admin and reorganized the state bureaucracy

Maintained Chinese presence in central Asia

Kept the Xiongnu in submission

Exercised firm control over the silk roads
The Yellow Turban Uprising


The Later Han did not learn from their ancestors and did nothing about the land distribution problems

Wealthy still lived in luxury while peasants worked under difficult conditions

Continued to suffer from the effects of banditry and rebellions organized by desperate peasants
The Yellow Turban Uprising was a serious revolt in the late 2nd century ce

Although the later Han possessed the military power required to keep civil disorder under reasonable control, the
rebellions weakened the Han during the 2nd and 3rd centuries ce

Collapse of the Han Dynasty

The Later Han were unable to prevent the development of factions at court that paralyzed the central gov’t

Imperial family members, Confucian scholars, and court eunuchs sought to increase their influence, protect their own
interests, and destroy their rivals


On several occasions, relations between the factions became so strained that they made war against each other

In 189 ce, a faction led by an imperial relative descended on the Han palace, slaughtering 2,000 eunuchs

The Later Han dynasty had reached a point of internal point of weakness it could not recover from
Early in the next century, the central gov’t disintegrated

For almost 400 years China remained divided into several large regional kingdoms