Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Chapter Two Objectives Reflections: Language can have incredible power, both positively and negatively. Words can be used to persuade, to threaten or coerce, to galvanize whole populations, to convey ideas, images, stereotypes, to bring about social transformation. Given the power language has, it is vital that we always be aware of its potential to shape—even manipulate—our thoughts. Goals: My goal in this chapter is to show how language can be used to persuade us to one view or another, shape our perceptions, color our worldview, influence our we see one another. It is vital we step back and look at the way we use language—or are used by language. Acquiring the skill to watch language at work helps us in more ways than we can imagine. Not only does it develop our critical thinking skills so our own abilities are strengthened—it also helps us help others who lack the insights into the power language can hold over people. By a sense of the key uses of language, we can see the power it can wield. The Power of Language In this chapter, we look at the key uses of language to persuade us to one view or another. The Persuasive Power of Language 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Descriptions And Asymmetry Denotations And Connotations Culturally Defined Uses Of Language Euphemisms And Hedging Ambiguity (Linguistic Fallacies) Concepts And Definitions Jargon, Buzzwords And Technical Terms Metaphors, Images And Analogies The Passive Voice Loaded Language Propaganda Exclusive Language And Hate Speech Humor, parody, and satire The liberatory voice 1. Descriptions and Asymmetry The language of description may vary according to who or what is being described. The same trait, say height or weight, may be discussed in quite different terms according to the subject. Asymmetry in description is common. We often see differences according to gender, age, class, celebrity or renown, and race. We see asymmetry when words that function similarly mean one thing in one context and something else in a different context. 2. Denotation and Connotation The denotation corresponds to a dictionary definition of a term. How we define a term can have significant consequences. The connotation is the set of associations attached to the word in question, 2-1 indicating a set of values. We see this with the terms “bachelor gal,” “unhitched chick,” and “spinster.” The terms all refer to unmarried women; but they have different connotations. 3. Culturally Defined Uses Of Language Our society and culture shape our use of language, by setting out a system of norms. Often nouns, pronouns, and verbs are flavored with cultural meaning and significance. In some contexts, culturally defined uses of language have political ramifications. Language is a carrier of values. Words can convey or connote a set of beliefs and prejudices. Our thoughts and perceptions take place in a certain time and space. 4. Euphemisms and Hedging A euphemism acts as a substitute for the targeted word, in order to achieve a particular end. The goal may be to defuse a situation that is controversial or it could be to slant it with a set of values. Hedging has the effect of undercutting the claim or raising doubts about it: (1) it can indicate a shift from one position to a much weaker one; or (2) it can undercut a claim or suggest a negative connotation of a phrase or claim being made. Loaded language is to be distinguished from colorful, or figurative, language. With the latter striking images (from ugly to funny to beautiful) are evoked because of the vivid use of language, but it does not function as a means of persuasion for a particular conclusion. 5. Ambiguity (Linguistic Fallacies) When ambiguities lead to an incorrect conclusion, we are looking at fallacious reasoning. The three key linguistic fallacies are: equivocation (where there's a shift of meaning in a word or phrase leading to an incorrect conclusion), accent (where the emphasis of a word or phrase leads us to an incorrect conclusion) and amphiboly (where the sentence structure or use of grammar creates an ambiguity, leading to an incorrect conclusion 6. Concepts and Definitions There may be any number of possible definitions for a word; but the context may more clearly reveal the intended meaning. Watch for hidden assumptions or exclusions in the way language is used. Components of a Definition: There are two parts to any definition: first, the word or phrase to define or clarify. This is called the definiendum. Then you have the explanation—words meaning the same as the word or phrase in question. This is called the definiens. Questions about syntax have to do with punctuation, grammar, word order, and sentence structure. Questions of semantics have to do with the meanings of words, what they signify. This includes both denotation and connotation: the denotation of a word is the literal meaning, whereas the connotation is what the word suggests, implies, or conjures up in our minds. Syntactical errors may seem less worrisome than semantic problems. However, grammatical or structural errors can create havoc. 7. Jargon, Buzzwords, and Technical Terms It is wise to watch out for jargon and buzzwords. Try to articulate your understanding of the word or phrase. “I understand this term to mean…” is one way to clarify your sense of a concept. Spell out how you think the term is being used. Basically, your goal is to be clear enough so your audience can understand what’s being said. Legal terms often are used quite specifically, so never assume they have an ordinary usage. 8. Metaphors and Images Descriptions may take colorful, dramatic turns. People often turn to metaphor when words fail them. Metaphors and images can shape an interpretation. Used well, metaphors can leave an impression that goes far beyond mere linear argumentation. Vivid, even jolting, metaphors can have a powerful effect on the audience. 2-2 9. The Passive Voice We use the passive voice when we make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence, as in “The chicken was eaten by the coyote” (emphasis mine). This form avoids calling attention to the one performing an action (the coyote). Its focus is the recipient of the action (the chicken). Passive constructions can be spotted by the use of a form of “to be” followed by a past participle. For instance: “The agents were contacted by Jason Bourne.” The structure of this is: “The agents were [form of the verb “to be”] contacted by [past participle] Jason Bourne.” To make it active, change it to: “Jason Bourne contacted the agents.” 10. Loaded Language Linguistic shape shifting can transform hot-words to lukewarm or cold ones (and vice versa). Loaded language is language that is value-laden, heavy with connotation (positive or negative). They can create a bias, just as neutralized terms can defuse a controversy by making them appear innocuous or acceptable. Loaded language should not be confused with colorful, or figurative, language. Loaded terms—also known as “weasel words”—are intended to affect the way we perceive. They are used to manipulate thinking and, thus, are potentially dangerous 11. Propaganda Propaganda uses words are used to shape public consciousness, to predispose people to certain ideas, policies and actions—and to manipulate them to think, vote, and act in as the propaganda machine suggests. Propaganda can come from all directions—left, right, and center. It is the substance, not the source that marks propaganda. Cult specialist Margaret Thaler Singer sees propaganda in the center of a continuum: Education—Advertising—Propaganda—Indoctrination—Thought Reform 13. Exclusive Language and Hate Speech The use of demeaning or vitriolic language tends to ignite and sustain prejudice. All too easily this leads to disrespectful behavior and even hate crimes. Language is part of the way prejudice gets perpetuated. Mari J. Matsuda set out three characteristics are used to identify hate speech. These are: The message is that one group is racially inferior. The message is directed against a historically oppressed group The message is persecutory, hateful, and degrading. 13. Humor, Parody, and Satire Humor can help jolt us out of our habitual ways of thinking. Comedy is a powerful vehicle for social commentary—and for loosening our thought processes! A satire is a work that ridicules or pokes fun at its subject (people, groups, institutions, countries, etc.) in order to bring about a particular effect, such as social change. 14. The Liberatory Voice Language can degrade, as we have seen. But language can also exalt. It is the liberatory aspect of language that moves us to organize, to effect political change, to address the ills of society, to take one small step to make our voices heard, to inject reason in the face of madness, goodness in the face of evil. 2-3