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GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Synthetic and analytical types of languages
Analytical verb-forms: function word + full /content word
 continuous forms
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perfect forms
forms of the future
interrogative forms
negative forms
forms of the passive voice
Synthetic verb-forms:
inflectional morphemes + inner flexions
GRAMMAR
=study of rules governing the use of a language
PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO GRAMMAR
prescribes grammatical norms
DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO GRAMMAR
describes how language is used in practice
THE SUBFIELDS OF GRAMMAR
phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.
In traditional terms: morphology and syntax
SYNTAX (Greek: syn=together + assein= arrange; Latin: syntaxis)

deals with the structure of sentences
MORPHOLOGY (Greek: morphé= form/structure + logos= word)
= branch of linguistics that studies word structure
= the study of how words are formed out of smaller units called
morphemes
= study of morphemes and the way they are joined together to
make words
L. Bloomfield: MORPHEME
=smallest meaningful unit in a given language
= different realisations (morphs) in different context
e.g. the verb morpheme “do“ = do, does, don´t
Such alternating morphs of a morpheme = allomorphs.
ALLOMORPHS=variants of a single morpheme: pl.-s: /-z/,/-s/,/iz/
FREE:
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lexical
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functional
BOUND:
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derivational
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inflectional
MORPHEMES
CLASSIFICATION OF WORD CLASSES
(PARTS OF SPEECH)
Full / content/ notional / words
= open classes (can form new words)
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Function words
= closed classes
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A lot of English words belong to more than one word class.
NOUNS (Latin nomen = name)
= person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, activity, state, event,
Distinctive features of nouns:
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noun-forming derivational affixes
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the threefold inflectional sibilant suffix
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marking by determiners
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fixed position in the sentence
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substitutable by pronouns
Some nouns:
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the same form as verbs
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graphically different
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phonetically different
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS
COMMON NOUNS
PROPER NOUNS

names of individuals = personal names, geographical names,

names of a group of individuals
CONCRETE NOUNS - definite objects
ABSTRACT NOUNS - quality, action, state, ideas, concepts
COLLECTIVE NOUNS – groups of people or things
MATERIAL NOUNS
- do not require limiting modifiers
- usually have no plural forms
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF NOUNS
1) SIMPLE NOUNS: no affixes
2) DERIVATIVE NOUNS:
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prefixes: un-, mis-, pre-, for-; anti-, ex-, il-, -in-, non-, sub-,
super-, vice-,
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suffixes: -al, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ar, -er, -or, -ion, -iour,
-ledge, -ment, -y, -ee; -age, -ce, -cy, -ry, -ty, -ity, -ness, -ation,
-dom, -ess, -hood, -ian, -ism, -ist, -ship
-ing forms used as nouns
- diminutives: -let, -ing, -ie, -ock, -ette
-ian, -er, -ese, -an, -ish, -ite
Nouns with 2 suffixes: -ishness
3) COMPOUNDS
words joined together referring to a single object
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N stem + N stem
Adj stem + N stem
Adv stem + N stem
Verb stem + N stem
CN with –ing forms
CN with a linking element:
- a vowel/consonant
- a preposition
- a conjunction
DERIVATIONAL COMPOUNDS
OTHER WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
CONVERSION
= lexemes change their word class without adding affixes
V>N
Adj > N
N>V
Adj > V
Adv > V
N > Adj
Adv > Adj
Adv > N
BLENDING; CLIPPING;
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER
Countable Ns = sg + pl; valley; country; BUT: Kennedy;
photo; BUT: hero; cargo;
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VOICING PLURAL: wife; BUT: roof; dwarf;
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MUTATED PLURAL: Englishman; BUT: German;
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-en PLURAL: child; BUT: brother;
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UNINFLECTED PLURAL: sheep; BUT: oyster
:
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FOREIGN PLURAL: phenomenon; analysis; bacterium;
BUT: focus; larva; antenna; index;
PLURAL IN COMPOUNDS
bedroom; postman; brother-in-law; passer-by; forget-me-not;
PLURAL IN COLLECTIVE NOUNS
- in sg. followed by Vs in sg.: foliage, machinery;
- in sg. followed by Vs in pl.: cattle; vermin;
- in sg. used with Vs in sg. or pl.: committee; police;
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Ns in pl. - V in pl.: clothes, goods; pyjamas, scissors;
Ns with -s – V in sg: billiards; mumps; news; BUT: statistics;
the same sg + pl = V in sg. or pl.: series; species;
PLURAL OF NAMES OF NATIONS
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Switzerland: sg. a Swiss, pl. many Swiss, nation: the Swiss
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The Netherlands = Dutchman, Dutchmen, nation: the Dutch
COUNTABILITY
COUNTABLE Ns: living beings or things with a definite form;
some abstract Ns; sg. and pl.; articles; numerals; How many? few;
UNCOUNTABLE Ns: sth can be measured but not counted,
without shape/limits; 1 form; the; no numerals; How much? little;
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material, liquids, substances: snow, iron, water, gold
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abstract qualities and ideas: courage, success, peace
UC in EN, BUT: gossip, information, hair, homework, news, soap
UC in pl.= kinds, extension, intensity: wines, waters, sands, heats
C/U = glass, iron, paper
Partitives
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF GENDER
OE = grammatical gender; ModE = natural gender:
male= masculine; female= feminine; inanimate things= neuter
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gender-forming suffix -ess: actress
other suffixes: heroine, widower, usherette
gender expressed lexically:
- by different words: mother – father
- by pronouns: wolf – she-wolf
- by words indicating the gender: male reader – female reader

Nouns with a generic term + a pair: horse; pig; sheep; monarch
COMMON GENDER
singer, journalist, neighbour, student = pronouns - male or female;
A pet: F = cat, parrot; car, ship; M = dog, horse, canary
PERSONIFICATION (in poetry):
Masculine = Ns - strength, inflexibility, resistance, necessity
- names of winds, rivers, mountains
summer, autumn, winter, the sun, anger, love, murder, war, death
Feminine = Ns denoting tenderness, feableness, loveliness
- names of countries (ref. to the nation), towns, universities
the moon, the earth, mercy, charity, faith, hope, modesty, justice
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF CASE
OE = 4 cases: N, G, D, Acc.
ModE:
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the common case = uninflected form
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the possessive/genitive case = inflected by:
-´s in sg:
a girl´s book;
my mother-in-law´s pen;
Peter and Paul´s quarrel;
-´ in pl.: girls´ school;
BUT: children´s toys; Dickens´/ Dickens´s novel;
DEPENDENT GENITIVE
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proper names: Paul´s car;
personal nouns: my sister´s school
personal indefinite pronouns: someone´s passport
names of animals: dog´s life
collective nouns: government´s decision
geographical names: Slovakia´s export; BUT:
institutional names: the school´s history
expressions of time, space, weight, distance: two week´s work
names of seasons/months/days: Sunday´s newspaper
with words: sun, moon, earth, world: the earth´s surface
with words: ship, boat, vessel: ship´s cargo
with personification (in poetry): wind´s whistle
fixed expressions: by a hair´s breadth
THE OF-CONSTRUCTION / OF-GENITIVE
refers to:
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things when we cannot form a compound
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parts of things
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abstract nouns
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partitives
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geographical notions
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some other nouns
THE ABSOLUTE / ELYPTICAL GENITIVE
= without a following noun:
 when it is clear what / who we are talking about
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when referring to work-places, shops, banks, houses:
THE DOUBLE GENITIVE
= when a noun is determined by:
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articles
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numerals
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some
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demonstrative pronouns
DETERMINERS
= words used in front of common nouns
CENTRAL DETERMINERS = mutually exclusive
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
articles
possessive
demonstrative
assertive; nonassertive
negative
universal
dual
WH-determiners
DETERMINERS
= determine (affect) the meaning of the noun
PREDETERMINERS = precede the required CD in a N phrase:
- quantifying
- fractional
- intensifying
- multiplying
POSTDETERMINERS = follow the required CD in a N phrase
- cardinal numerals
- ordinal numerals
- many, much + its relatives
- the forms of other
- the phrasal quantifiers
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: the
= from OE demonstrative pronoun sé
- particular object; sth that is known; specific or definite reference;
- C in sg.; C in pl.; U; the definite object;
- we know exactly from the context;
- unique things
- political parties; the whole family; nouns of nationalities;
- in proverbs
- ordinal numerals; superlative degree – adj.; substantivized adj.
- with some places, even if we don´t know exactly which
- with: same, very, right, wrong; the weather;
- some, many, none, most + preposition of;
- abstract Ns modified by an attribute in post-position
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: a / an
= from OE numeral án (one)
- meaning “one“: Ns denoting time, measure, weight, numerals
- people or things in general
- all the representatives of the class = “every“
- Ns introduced for the 1st time - CNs
- object belonging to a class = “some, any“
- with jobs, Ns of nationalities; some illnesses;
- proper Ns (member of family; literature, art)
- Ns: period, population, distance, height, salary + OF constr.
- after “there is“, “what a ...“, “such a ...“
- personal names modified by “certain“
THE ZERO ARTICLE
= shows that Ns are used in a general sense
- with pl CNs in general statements
- abstract Ns; UNs of material
- some illnesses; illnesses in -s
- activities + sport games
- in general: names of periods of a year, months, days, holidays
- languages; names of subjects; names of food;
- names of persons; forms of addressing people; titles + names;
- Ns expressing relationship
- in certain prepositional phrases
THE USE OF ARTICLES
No article:
Articles:
I like spring.
It happened in the spring of 1968.
It was spring.
It was a cold spring.
Day is meant for work,
He won´t forget the day when...
night for sleep.
The night was warm.
to be in prison (= prisoner)
to be in the prison (= building)
to leave school/at school (study) to leave the school; a good school
Is dinner ready?
The dinner we had today was ...
speak French
use the French language at work
Dickens, the great novelist, ...
It´s a Dickens novel. /a Picasso
THE USE OF ARTICLES
NO ARTICLE:
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE:
Africa, Asia, Europe
the Antarctica, the Continent (Europe)
England, Germany
the UK, the Vatican, the Ukraine
the Pacific (Ocean), the Black Sea, the Nile
Lake Ontario, Lake Geneva
the Ontario (no: lake)
Mount Everest, Mont Blanc,
the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau,
Elbrus, Snowdon, Ben Nevis
the Alps, the Himalayas,
Malta, Sicily, Madagaskar
the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man
groups of islands: the Bahamas, the Azores, the Canaries
the Gobi (Desert), the Sahara
London / Westminster Bridge
the Golden Gate Br., the Tower Br.
PRONOUNS
point out objects / qualities without naming them
1) PERSONAL:
= refer to the person speaking, spoken to, spoken about
Gram. categories of P, N, C, G – 3rd sg.
Common case is replaced by:
- subjective case
- objective case
2) POSSESSIVE:
= refer to parts of the body and personal belongings
Gram. categories: P, N, G
2 forms:
- the dependent / attribute form (possessive determiners)
- the independent / the nominal form
SPECIFIC PRONOUNS
3) DEMONSTRATIVE: express the number contrast
= point at what is nearer or farther in time and space
Such = of this/that kind; such as = for example
Same = always with “the“
4) REFLEXIVE: indicate - action expressed by V passes back to S
Gram. categories: P, N, G – 3rd sg.
- as direct or indirect O
- after a preposition;
after “by“ meaning alone;
- as part of the predicative of the V to be
- in fixed phrases
- to emphasize sth.
= used with reflexive Vs
5) SPECIFIC INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
= form questions; always precede the V
Who = 3 case-forms, used only for persons
Subjective; Objective; Genitive/Possessive (determiner);
What = no case-forms; used:
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for things
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for an activity
 to ask for a person´s profession, character, etc.
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in idiomatic expressions
Which = used for things and persons; sg. or pl; subject or object;
= implies choice among a certain number of things
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often followed by an of-phrase
Compound interrogatives:
= used for emphasis
6) SPECIFIC RELATIVE PRONOUNS
point out back to a N or pron. mentioned before = antecedent
Forms :
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personal: subject: who; object: whom; possessive: whose;
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non-pers: subj: which, that; obj: which, that; poss: whose
That =for persons/things in restrictive relative clauses
- can sometimes be left out of a sentence
- cannot be preceded by a preposition
- after the superlative; after most indefinite pronouns;
- after opening phrases; antecedent = both person +thing
What is used when an antecedent is not expressed
Compound relative pronouns
Relative as = always after such + after the same (also: that)
7) SPECIFIC RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
= express mutual action or relation
= the subject = always in pl.
Each other implies only two
One another = two or more persons
The common case
The genitive case
INDEFINITE: UNIVERSAL PRONOUNS
ALL: persons / things; in sg. / pl.; expresses unity;
- as a pronoun meaning: everything;
- as an adjective meaning: the whole of;
- in some expressions
EACH: 2 or more than 2 persons/things separately
- a limited number; after of and at the end
- as a pronoun + as a determiner
EVERY: more than 2 persons/things meaning: altogether;
- unlimited number; after: nearly, not; only as a determiner
- in idiomatic expressions
BOTH: with pl N and pl V
- as pronoun; as adjective; adverbially;
INDEFINITE: PARTITIVE PRONOUNS
SOME = determiner or nominal function; CNs + UNs; compounds
- indefinite quant./nr; contrast; particular but unidentified
- affirm. sent.; interrogative = positive reply; before numerals
ANY = it doesn´t matter who, which, what; CNs+UNs; compounds
- in: interrog.; negative; indirect quest.; condit. clauses; adverbially
NO = determiner function; “not any, not a“; CNs + UNs;
Nobody, no one, nothing =nominal f., sg V; replaced by any-;
NONE = nominal function; sg+ pl; of-constructions
THE OTHER /+sg N= the second of two
ANOTHER = an additional one; a different one;
THE OTHERS; THE OTHER + pl N = remaining ones;
OTHERS; OTHER + pl N = different, additional, remaining ones;
EITHER=1/the other of 2;both; NEITHER=not this, not the other
INDEFINITE: QUANTIFYING PRONOUNS
MANY, FEW = pl., used with CNs
MUCH, LITTLE = sg., used with UNs
In affirmative s.: a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of,
MANY, MUCH: in interrog. + negative; MUCH = also adverbially
FEW, LITTLE = negative meaning; A FEW, A LITTLE = positive
SEVERAL: in pl.; determiner+nominal f. with of-construction
ENOUGH: with CNs + UNs; determiner or nominal function;
ONE:
- numerical
- replacive = a word-substitute (not with UNs)
- indefinite = “people in general“
- after WHICH;
ADJECTIVES / MODIFIERS
limit or qualify words by describing them
According to morphologic characteristics:
1) GRADABLE
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the positive
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the comparative
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the superlative
Two types of comparison: synthetic and analytical
2) NON-GRADABLE
IRREGULAR FORMS OF ADJECTIVES
Spelling rules
ADJECTIVES
do not change in gender, number, case
According to their meaning:
QUALITATIVE /descriptive: size, shape, colour, m. + ph. qualities
RELATIVE = to materials, place, time, action
SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES: wholly or partially
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES:
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primary / simple
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secondary:
- derived /derivative
- converted
 compound
Pre-modifiers x post-modifiers
ADVERBS express some circumstances that
attend an action, state, or point out some
characteristic features of an action or a quality
- answer questions: HOW? WHEN? WHERE? HOW OFTEN?
TO WHAT EXTENT? IN WHAT ORDER?
- can modify:
Vs, adj. , indefinite pron., other adv., Ns, whole sentences;
The modifying adverb is usually an INTENSIFIER
According to their structure:
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simple
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derivative
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compound
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composite
Adverbial phrases
GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS
GRADABLE: synthetic or analytical
Irregular forms of comparison
NON-GRADABLE
According to their meaning:
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adverbs of MANNER
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adverbs of PLACE and DIRECTION
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adverbs of TIME
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adverbs of FREQUENCY
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adverbs of DEGREE, MEASURE and QUANTITY
2 forms of adverbs
The same forms of adverbs and adjectives
CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARISON
POSITION OF ADVERBS IN A SENTENCE
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of manner:
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of degrees:
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of place and directions:
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of time:
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of frequency:
VERBS = word class / clause element
Grammatical categories of Vs: tense, aspect, voice, mood
A sentence:
- a single verb = the finite verb phrase (VP) is simple:
- a cluster of Vs = the VP is complex:
Within a complex VP = up to 4 auxiliaries in front of the main V.
4 basic types of the complex finite VP:
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modal
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perfective
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progressive
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passive
VERBS
- according to the function within a VP = 3 classes of Vs:
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primary auxiliary Vs
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modal auxiliary Vs
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lexical (main, full) Vs
- according to the finiteness:
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finite V forms
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non-finite V forms
- according to morphological forms:
 regular Vs
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irregular Vs
VERBS
Regular Vs = 4 morphological forms:
 the base form (no inflections) = 4 functions
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the -ed form (past form + -ed participle form) = 3 functions
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the -s form
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-ing form
Irregular Vs = either 5 forms or 3 forms
- classified into:
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3 forms alike
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3 forms different
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past tense equals -ed participle
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V base equals -ed participle
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V base equals the past tense
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS
= assist the main V to express gram. contrasts (in P, N, T)
= a separate class
TO BE
= unique, 8 forms; uncontracted x contracted negative forms
2 functions: 1. as an aspect auxiliary for the progressive
2. as a passive auxiliary
Lexical V = when combined with Adj., Adv., Pron., Ns
Forms:
present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future perfect;
progressive present; progressive past;
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS
TO HAVE
= base, -s, past, -ing, -ed; contracted x uncontr. negative forms
Lexical V = to possess;
Forms:
present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future perfect;
HAVE x HAVE GOT = often interchangeable
In BrE: have got = perfect form of “get“ + have got = to possess;
In BrE questions - by inversion, in AmE - by operators
When a stative V = no progressive form
When a dynamic V = meaning: eat, drink, enjoy, take, experience
HAVE + determiner + noun = to perform activity
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS
TO DO
= present; -s; past; contracted x uncontracted negative forms;
Lexical V = to perform; to work at or be engaged in sth.
Forms: -ing; -ed; ...
Auxiliary V:
- negated imperative
- in questions
- in tag questions
- in emphatic or persuasive constructions
- in inversion caused by introductory words (negative adverbs:
hardly, seldom)
MODALS = the speaker´s attitude toward
the action or state indicated by the infinitive
I CAN / COULD (periphrastic form: to be able to)
CAN = ability, capability;
CANNOT/CAN´T = inability, incapability
CAN expresses:
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physical and mental abilities
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asking and giving permission
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with Vs with perception
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possibility
CAN´T/COULD/COULD NOT + perfect inf.= ref. to the past
CAN/CAN´T + passive infinitive
MODALS - defective, not inflected;
followed by bare infinitive;
I MAY / MIGHT (periphrastic = to be allowed to)
 permission

in questions MAY is more formal than CAN
MIGHT in more polite requests
MUSTN´T stronger prohibition than MAY NOT
- possibility (= it is possible)
MAY + present infinitive = about present or future happenings
MAY/MIGHT + perfect infinitive = guess about past happening
MIGHT expresses reproach
MIGHT + perfect infinitive = action was not carried out in the past
MAY as a subjunctive auxiliary (expresses wish)
MODALS - cannot form imperative;
do not have the infinitive form;
I MUST (to have to) = to be obliged to; to be compelled to
inescapable obligation, duty or necessity

an absence of obligation by NEED NOT or DON´T HAVE TO
MUSTN´T is a strong way of forbidding to do sth.

MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO = interchangeable
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obligation comes from the speaker
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stronger obligation for other persons
MUST in notices, documents, commands
MUST in pressing invitation and emphatic advice
MUST + present inf. = deduction refers to the present
MUST + perfect inf. = deduction about the past
MODALS - negative and interrogative forms
without the auxiliary
SHALL expresses:
 volition (mostly for 1st sg.)

in questions = obligation or suggestion

insistence, threat

in legal documents- in 2nd, 3rd person
SHOULD
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in reported speech; in offers, suggestions, requests;

escapable obligation, duty
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probability; after if and in case = possibility

recommendations from an outside authority
OUGHT TO = more objective force, talk about laws, duties
SHOULD/OUGHT TO + perf. inf.= action wasn´t carried out
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
WILL expresses:
 prediction about the future; about the present; giving orders;

habitual predictive meaning in conditional;

willingness to do sth.; intention to make promises or threats

to make requests or to give orders
WILL+perfect inf.= logical deduction about the past
WOULD = past form, in reported speech
- about past habits + characteristic behaviour (no with state V)
WOULD as conditional
WOULD = more polite request than WILL
- after I wish / If only I ... expresses willingness
MARGINAL MODALS / SEMI-MODALS
NEED = in the negative; Yes/No questions
- after negative adverbs (hardly, seldom, rarely)
- in formal style, expressing doubts
- in informal use = ordinary (lexical) V form
NEEDN´T + perfect inf.= sb did it but it was not necessary
DARE: in questions + negatives or with bare infinitive or a full V
- in informal style; the negative DAREN´T:
YOU DARE! or: DON´T YOU DARE! = to discourage people
I DARE SAY = probably
USED TO = past habit = only in simple past; also with state V
USED NOT or USEDN´T = in the negative; in questions;
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE
ACTIVE VOICE
The clause with transitive Vs contains:
3 gram. elements: S+V+O; 3 semantic units: A+P (A)+G
SUBJECT = AGENT if V is in the active voice; OBJECT = GOAL
If WO - changed = both gram. + semantic roles of Ns change
PASSIVE VOICE
= the SUBJECT - not interpreted as the AGENT
AGENT (NP) is preceded by the preposition by.
AGENT (unknown, unimportant) = unexpressed
The emphasis = on the action, not on people who perform it.
Sth that the AGENT used to perform the action = preposition with:
After ditransitive Vs either OBJECT = SUBJECT of a passive clause.
THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
= to be + -ed participle
 present simple: John is helped by Mary.

present progressive
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present perfect
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simple past
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past progressive
 past perfect
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simple future
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future perfect
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present infinitive
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perfect infinitive
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- ing form
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perfect –ing form
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF ASPECT
reflects the way in which the verb action is “regarded“ or
„experienced“ with respect to time;
- is closely connected in meaning with tense
2 types of aspectual contrast:
1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT
2) THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) ASPECT
1 THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT

is associated with time orientation + various time indicators
(already, since, for, so far, lately, recently, up to now, how long,
ever,...)
1.1 THE PRESENT PERFECT
= have + -ed participle
= “past happening related to present time“

past events with results in the present time

indefinite events in a period leading up to the present time

habit in a period leading up to the present time

state leading up to the present time
1.2 THE PAST PERFECT
= had + -ed participle
= “past in the past“
= conjunctions: after, when show which event took place earlier

describing one event following another in the past

event in -when clause = completed before event in PS started

in reported speech after past Vs

to narrate events looking back from a point in the past

to express an unrealized hope, wish
1.3 THE FUTURE PERFECT
= (will + perfect infinitive)
= at a certain time in the future sth will be completed / achieved
(often used with by + time reference)
THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT = to be + ing form
= refers to activity in progress, and therefore suggests that:
a) the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration)
b) it need not be complete
2.1 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (am/is/are + -ing)
= actions in progress at the moment of speaking (now, just)
= temporary situation, activity is taking place in the present time
and will continue for a limited period
= future reference with Vs of motion (arrive, come, go, leave, fly)
= activities planned for the future
= repeated actions – unexpectedly/annoyingly (always, constantly)
THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
2.2 PAST PROGRESSIVE
= was/were + -ing
= an action was in progress at a specified time in the past
= started bef. event in PS,= in progress when event in PS occured
= two parallel actions were in progress at the same time (while)
= progress with adverbials beginning with all (all morning, all day)
= repeated actions
= the background for a narrative in the past
THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
2.3 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
= has/have been +ing
= an activity taking place in the recent period up to the present
= started in P, continues up to Pr and possibly in the F (since, for)
2.4 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
= had been + -ing
- used to describe an activity looking back from the past
THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
2.5 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE = shall/will be + -ing
= an activity going on at a particular time or over a particular
period in the future (we mention the future time)
= future activity is the result of a previous decision (arrangement)
= planned activities in the future
= asking (politely) about people´s plans
2.6 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
= shall/will + have been + -ing
= activity leading up to time in the future
(usually - the particular point in the future (on Saturday, next year)
and the period of time until this point (for a year, for 20 minutes)
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF MOOD
indicates the factual, nonfactual, or
counterfactual status of prediction
THE INDICATIVE/DECLARATIVE = facts; relatively confident
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD = commands, instructions
2 sg/pl (no distinction)= base of V; 1+3 sg/pl = periphrastically
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (replaced by other constructions)
1) The Mandative S. = lack of regular concord btw S + FV
a) in a subordinate that-clause after Vs (in the main clause):
advise, ask, beg, decide, demand, desire, insist, intend, order
b) after adjectives (anxious, determined) with a personal S
or (essential, important, urgent, vital)+ impersonal it-constr.
c) after Ns (demand, intention, order, request, suggestion)
2) The Formulaic S. in certain set expressions
3) The Were-S. = hypothetical; conditional/wish clauses
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF TENSE
Present: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive
Past: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive
Expressing future:
simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive
NON-FINITE VERB FORMS = after Vs in VP,
after Ns, Adj, in non-finite subordinate clauses
1) THE INFINITIVE
 present infinitive active:

present infinitive passive:

present progressive infinitive active:

perfect / past infinitive active:

perfect / past infinitive passive:
 perfect / past progressive infinitive active:
The bare infinitive is used after:

modals; let; make; had better; would rather; Vs of perception;
The to-infinitive is used after:

some lexical Vs; V to be + adj.; some Vs followed by an O;

indicating purpose
NON-FINITE VERB FORMS
2) THE ING-FORM
 -ing participles in progr. aspect or functioning as participial adj.

gerunds = can take place of N or V
- in statements = U; as a count = after determiners+´s genitive
Forms: present active; present passive; past active; past passive
Use:
after most Vs of liking and disliking; some lexical Vs; phrasal Vs;
prepositions including adj. + preposition phrases;
3) THE –ed FORM
= the past form and the –ed participle form

to form the passive;

to express perfective aspect (have/had + -ed);

to begin a subordinate clause;