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International Relations c.1814–1914 knowledge guide
Core issue
Congress of Vienna
Key content
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1848 Revolutions
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Crimean War
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Conceptual ideas
Debates
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Great Powers (Britain, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria) and others
met at Vienna in 1814 to formally end the Napoleonic Wars and
create a European Peace settlement.
Secondary aim of the reactionary powers (those that formed the Holy
Alliance – Russia, Prussia and Austria) was to suppress liberalism and
any hint of revolution from then on.
Revised settlement was necessary in 1815 after Napoleon escaped
from exile and resumed war. Defeated at Waterloo. France still
treated relatively lightly – borders restored.
Britain refused to join the Holy Alliance and instead joined the same
powers in the Quadruple Alliance. Neither was involved in
international conflicts.
Eastern Question was discussed but not resolved.
German Confederation established – 39 states.
Set up congress system – regular meetings between statesmen to
avoid another conflict.
Peace settlement
Statesmen
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Wave of revolutionary activity spread across a large number of
countries in Europe.
Multiple causes including economic instability, poor living and
working conditions, suppression of political rights, nationalism in
Germany and Italy.
Most leaders panicked in response to widespread revolt, which
brought together lower and middle classes. They promised timely
concessions to restore order.
Very few concessions actually in place by end of 1849 – conservative
and reactionary leaders took advantage of divisions between
revolutionaries to repress them, often with troops.
In Austria, Metternich was forced to resign, thereby removing a force
for stability in Central Europe.
Conservative
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Primary cause = Russia’s ambition to gain a warm water port in the
Black Sea. Part of the Eastern Question – opportunity seized as a
result of the Ottoman Empire’s decline.
Eastern Question
Reactionary
Liberalism
Nationalism
Alliance
Congress system (aka
the Concert of Europe)
Revolution
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Concessions
Constitution
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Instability
Prestige
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How lightly was France treated,
especially in relation to later peace
settlements like Versailles?
How accurate is the term ‘a peace
for the strong’?
How long did the congress system
(aka the Concert of Europe) actually
last?
How large a factor was reaction in
deciding the post-war settlement?
To what extent was the suppression
of nationalism and liberalism a key
reason for instability later in the
century?
How far was Metternich responsible
for instability later in the period?
How widespread were the
revolutions?
How valid is the view that Europe
became more stable in the
aftermath of 1848?
How far does the maintenance of
the balance of power fully explain
British involvement?
Core issue
Key content
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The Eastern Question
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Conceptual ideas
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Original war between Russian and Ottoman Empires. France joined
against Russia to increase its prestige, claiming to be defending the
rights of non-Orthodox Christians in Turkey. Britain joined in defence
of the balance of power, worried about growing Russian strength.
Ended in defeat for Russia, but all belligerents shocked by condition
of their own military strength – first “European” war for decades.
Prompted army and even social reforms, especially in Russia.
Beginning of tension between Russia and Austria – Russia angry that
Austria did not support it.
Also significant as first major war between European powers since
1815. Represented failure of congress system.
Ottoman Empire had reached its peak in C16th when it almost
conquered Vienna. Afterwards began a slow decline.
Empire was beset by economic problems and very slow to
industrialise, contributing to decline. Labelled by Nicholas I of Russia
in 1853 as “the sick man of Europe”.
Colonisation by European powers (esp. by Britain and France) close to
Ottoman Empire’s borders was another reason for decline – e.g.
French interest in Egypt.
1823 – start of Greek War of Independence. Turkey allowed Greece
to become independent state in 1830, signifying start of Balkan
independence movements leading to break-up of Ottoman Empire
there.
Nationalism a factor in the Balkans, but also religion. Catholics and
Orthodox Christians were ruled by Muslims, leading to several cases
of serious unrest. European powers could claim to be defending their
Christian “brothers”.
Ethnic tension another issue – some Balkan areas (esp. Serbia) were
predominantly Slav, same as Russians. Led to Panslavism and calls for
union of all South Slavs (not inc. Russians) in one state.
Crimean War a key example of Russia trying to capitalise on Ottoman
decline.
1877-8 Russo-Turkish War was another attempt. Russia easily won
and awarded itself major territorial gains in Treaty of San Stefano.
Other powers, worried about Russian ambitions, reversed this with
the Treaty of Berlin.
Debates
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Decline (of nations and
empires)
Colonisation
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Nation state /
independence
Slav
Panslavism
South Slavs / Yugoslavia
Orthodox
Polyglot Empire
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Why did Napoleon III really decide
to intervene?
How soundly were Russian
ambitions checked by defeat in
Crimea?
How serious was the discontent
between Austria and Russia as a
result of the war?
To what extent was the Eastern
Question the most destabilising
factor in European relations?
Why was the Eastern Question so
significant in destabilising AustroRussian relations?
How did Balkan nationalist
movements develop in this period?
Core issue
German unification
Key content
Conceptual ideas
Debates
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Balkan nationalism increasingly an issue for Austria-Hungary –
nationalist movements on its borders threatened integrity of their
own polyglot empire. Balkans a threat to Austria, but an opportunity
to Russia.
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Germany not a single nation state until 1871. Before had been part of
Holy Roman Empire (over 300 states) and became German
Confederation in 1815 (39 states).
Nationalism was a progressive, liberal idea originally – would involve
dethroning autocratic rulers.
Process began with economic cooperation between states – the
Zollverein in 1834. This was a customs union which made trade easier
between the different states.
There were 3 wars of unification, all featuring Prussia (largest,
wealthiest and most militaristic states) and respectively against
Denmark (1864), Austria (1866) and France (1870).
These were orchestrated by Bismarck despite resistance from other
large states, especially from Bavaria. Increased Prussian militarism.
North German Confederation in place 1867–1871.
Franco-Prussian War 1870-1 led to creation of German Empire –
Prussian King Wilhelm I became Kaiser.
German unification altered the balance of power (Disraeli particularly
worried). Bismarck’s policy was to isolate France to prevent them
from acting on revanchism. Terms of French surrender were harsh –
Alsace-Lorraine given to Germany, reparations etc.
Zollverein
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Continental empire (as
opposed to overseas
colonisation)
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British Empire by far biggest and most successful of all the powers.
Advantages = superior naval power and huge wealth generated from
trade. Other powers sought to emulate from mid C19th onwards.
Competition became tension with Belgium’s entrance into
imperialism – began colonising the Congo in the 1870s.
Other powers rushed to secure other regions. To avoid war, Berlin
Conference took place 1884-5 which set guidelines for claiming
territory in Africa. No Africans invited, few delegates had been there.
Scramble began after conference; continent divided up rapidly. In
1870 only 10% of Africa had been colonised – by 1914 only 10% was
still independent.
Naval supremacy
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The new imperialism,
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esp. Scramble for Africa
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Kaiser
Revanchism
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Imperialism
Colonialism
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Weltpolitik
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To what extent did the unification of
Germany alter the balance of power
in Europe?
How significant were Prussian
military reforms in the achievement
of unification?
How significant was Bismarck’s role
in the achievement of unification?
To what extent was French desire
for revanchism following defeat in
the Franco-Prussian War the most
significant destabilising factor in
European peace 1871–1914?
How close did the Great Powers
come to war during the Scramble
for Africa?
To what extent did Weltpolitik lead
to worsening relations between
Britain and Germany, 1890–1914?
How were Anglo-French relations in
between c.1800 and 1914 affected
by imperial rivalry?
Core issue
Key content
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Alliances 1879–1907
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Conceptual ideas
Debates
Rivalry between powers still led to clashes, some serious, e.g.
Fashoda incident between Britain and France in 1892.
Boer Wars can be seen as a result of the Scramble – Boers in South
Africa against Britain. To antagonise Britain, Kaiser Wilhelm II publicly
supported the Boers.
Bismarck initially reluctant to build overseas empire but joined the
Scramble. Wilhelm later very keen for Weltpolitik and to create
Germany’s own ‘place in the sun’ (German overseas empire). Led to
tension esp. with Britain.
Other colonial rivalries flared up in the East – so-called Scramble for
China. Russia and Britain competed over areas of Asia in what was
known as the Great Game.
Holy and Quadruple Alliances defunct by this point.
Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria formed 1879, a
defensive alliance against Russia. Italy joined 1882 to make it the
Triple Alliance.
France and Russia became more closely aligned in late C19th despite
very different political systems. French investment in Russian
industry. Franco-Russian Alliance formalised 1894 – defensive against
Germany.
Britain committed to splendid isolation before 1900 – favoured strong
empire links over involvement in European affairs but still concerned
about balance of power. German ambitions prompted revision of this
policy.
In response to Russian expansion in the East, Britain made AngloJapanese agreement in 1902.
Entente Cordiale signed 1904 between France and Britain. Terms
mostly focused on putting aside colonial rivalry, but often perceived
as defensive against Germany. In 1912 this was extended to a naval
agreement to defend the Channel ports.
Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1907 complete the Triple Entente (which
wasn’t a separate agreement).
By 1907 there were two rival, evenly balanced alliance systems in
Europe, setting stage for war. HOWEVER Britain not formerly
committed to military intervention.
Alliance
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Entente
Splendid isolation
Defensive alliance
Escalation
Militarism
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To what extent were alliances the
most important factor in the
destabilisation of peace in Europe?
How significant was Britain’s
emergence from splendid isolation?
Why is the Entente Cordiale often
presented as a defensive alliance
against Germany?
To what extent were the ambitions
and actions of Germany responsible
for dividing Europe into two armed
camps?
Core issue
Tension in the Balkans
Key content
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Increased likelihood of conflict between two powers escalating to a
European-wide crisis. Militarism increased. Germany’s fear of
encirclement led to creation of Schlieffen Plan.
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Suspicion between Austria-Hungary and Russia over the Balkans
increased after Russo-Turkish War.
1903 coup d’état in Serbia increased tension as the new government
was pro-Russian and anti-Austrian with Panslavist views.
1906-8 ‘Pig War’ between Serbia and Austria (not actual conflict but it
was an attempt by Austria to damage Serbia’s trade and economy.
Serbia then made more trade links with other countries.
1908 Bosnian Crisis – Austria-Hungary had been given right to take
over aspects of Bosnia-Herzegovina’s government at 1878 Treaty of
Berlin. Now formally annexed it. This was apparently agreed at a
secretive meeting between Austrian and Russian foreign ministers.
Serbia and Russia humiliated by this but couldn’t intervene – Russia
still recovering from loss of Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) and
Germany threatened to back Austria-Hungary.
Bosnian Crisis made Russia more determined not to back down in
future or risk losing influence in the Balkans and reputation as
‘protector of Slavs’.
1908 also encouraged creation of nationalist terrorist groups in the
Balkans – most significant being Serbian ‘Black Hand’.
Balkan League formed 1912 of most independent Balkan countries
with aim of finally pushing the Ottomans out of the Balkans (First
Balkan War).
This was successful but in 1913 League members clashed over
dividing up newly independent territory. Serbia, Greece and Romania
joined forces against Bulgaria. Serbia main winners – country almost
doubled in size. Bulgaria lost and later joined Triple Alliance (Central
Powers).
Coup d’état
Many historians observe that the beginning of 1914 saw many signs
of improved relations between rival powers.
Crisis began with assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of
Austria-Hungary by Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip on 28 June 1914.
July Crisis
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July Crisis and the
outbreak of WW1
Conceptual ideas
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Foreign minister
Debates
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Irredentism
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Preventive war
‘Blank cheque’
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How did Austro-Russian relations
develop c.1814-1914?
What really happened at the
meeting between Aehrenthal and
Izvolsky (the Austrian and Russian
foreign ministers) in 1908?
How significant was Serbia’s coup
d’état to increasing tension in the
Balkans?
How valid is the view that the
Bosnian Crisis was a ‘dress
rehearsal’ for the July Crisis?
How important were railway
timetables in the July Crisis?
How harsh was Austria-Hungary’s
ultimatum to Serbia?
Core issue
Key content
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5 July – as Austria-Hungary discussed how to respond, Wilhelm II of
Germany sent ‘blank cheque’ – promise of military backing for Austria
regardless of how they proceeded.
23 July – A-H sent ultimatum to Serbia, designed to be harsh so it was
rejected and A-H had an excuse for war.
28 July – ultimatum accepted on all counts but one. A-H declared war
on Serbia.
In the next few days Russia mobilised its army and Germany declared
war on Russia, following Schlieffen Plan, then on France. They
invaded Belgium on 3 August.
Britain unsure how to respond throughout crisis – cabinet split.
Eventually joined 4 August using pretext of defending Belgian
neutrality but probably more concerned with prospect of German
domination of continent if France defeated.
Conceptual ideas
Ultimatum
Debates
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Mobilisation
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Could British statesmen have done
more to resolve the July Crisis
peacefully?
How far could the ‘blank cheque’ be
used as evidence for the argument
that Germany was the most
important reason for the escalation
of conflict?
How significant were alliances in the
July Crisis?