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THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND THE CONCERT OF EUROPE: 1815-23
I. The situation: 1814, the end of the Napoleonic Wars: Europe has been at war almost continuously
for 22 years, 1792-1814
A. The Allies invaded France from across the Rhine, from Belgium and from Switzerland
B. Napoleon's army fought a rear guard action in northern France
C. Dissension and rivalry arose in the armies of the Russians, Prussians, and Austrians over their
post-war gains
D. Great Britain had been at war with the U.S. since 1812
1. Britain was unable to use its full force in the war
2. Britain feared the other members of the Fourth Coalition would sign separate peace treaties
with France and drop out of the war
3. All other previous coalitions had broken up
E. Lord Castlereagh, British Foreign Secretary, negotiated the Treaty of Chaumont, March 9,
1814: the Treaty was the foundation for the "Concert of Europe"
1. The Allies agreed not to sign separate treaties with Napoleon; they would only sign a single
joint treaty
2. The British promised to contribute financially to the war effort on the continent
3. The Allies agreed upon a cooperative defense in the event of an attack after the peace treaty
was signed
4. The Treaty of Chaumont was supposed to last for 20 years
F. The Fall of Paris, March 31, 1814, forced Napoleon's abdication and his exile to Elba in the
Treaty of Fontainebleau, April, 1814
G. First Treaty of Paris or the Treaty of Paris of 1814 (signed May 30, 1814)
1. Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, was restored to the throne of France
2. France retained its frontiers of 1792 keeping Savoy, Alsace, and Lorraine
3. France surrendered the Rhine Valley and Belgium and all claims to its later conquests
H. Second Treaty of Paris or Treaty of Paris of 1815 (signed November 20, 1815)
1. It followed Napoleon's escape from Elba (March, 1815) and the Hundred Days ending with
the Battle of Waterloo: June 18, 1815
2. The second treaty was, by necessity, more severe
a. France’s frontiers reduced to its 1790 boundaries bringing the loss of Savoy and some
key cities in the Rhineland
b. Payment of an indemnity and a period of occupation were required of France
II. Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
A. The Congress was the largest and most distinguished diplomatic assemblage in European history
to that point in time. It included:
1. Major victors in the war: Austria, Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia
2. Minor participants in war and other interested nations: Sweden, Denmark, Spain, Portugal,
the Papacy, Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg
3. France: the defeated nation
a. France was originally to be excluded from all negotiations
b. France was included when Russia and Prussia combined against Austria over Saxony
and Poland:
c. It was realized by the great powers that the participation of France was necessary to
re-establish a true balance of power on the continent
B. The Congress’ Goal: to re-establish the European balance of power after the French
Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars (1789-1815)
1. There was a need to redraw the map of Europe after 25 years of warfare
2. There was a need to control the forces of liberalism and nationalism set in motion by the
French Revolution that threatened to overturn the old order
C. The Congress was dedicated to maintaining the political status quo favoring conservatism and
opposing liberalism and nationalistic independence movements
D. The Balance of power was seen as important to maintaining the peace
1. Metternich’s “principle of legitimacy” opposed revolution for change: "legitimate"
governments were those established by tradition, not revolution
2. The principle of compensation required that each nation that lost territory be compensated
in order to maintain the balance of power
E. The sessions of the Congress were dominated by the "Big Five"
1. Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria (1815-1848: It was the beginning of the “Age of
Metternich”
a. The Metternich System was first used at the Congress:
i.
Use concentrated power of all of the Great Powers to maintain the status quo
ii. To oppose liberalism and revolutionary nationalism that upset the status quo
iii. Metternich used his principle of "legitimacy" where it was practical and favorable
b. Metternich maneuvered to keep Austria a first-rate power
c. The Congress was held in Vienna to increase the influence of Austria
d. The Austrian Emperor, Francis II, spent lavishly to entertain and influence the other
diplomats while they were in Vienna
e. Metternich argued that it was Austrian entrance into the war had turned balance in
favor of Allies
f.
Mettenich’s goals: to gain a major portion of Poland and increase Austrian territory to
keep Austria powerful, to block the growth of Russian power, and to prevent Prussia
from dominating Central Europe and the new German confederation
2. King Frederick William III and his key aide and foreign minister, Prince von Hardenburg,
represented Prussia
a. Hardenburg argued that it was the Prussian army and the German uprising led by
Prussia that had turned the war against France
b. Prussia’s goal: to gain all of Saxony
3. Lord Castlereagh, British Foreign Minister represented Great Britain
a. Also representing Britain was the Duke of Wellington, the hero of Spain and Waterloo
(the battle that took place during the Congress)
b. Castlereagh argued it was continuous British opposition, British sea power, and British
money that had defeated Napoleon
c. Britain wanted to maintain the balance of power on the continent and the neutrality of
the Low Countries so that Britain could concentrate on its Empire: Britain wanted to
gain overseas territories for its Empire
i.
Britain feared a new threat from France if it regained power
ii. Britain feared the increasing power and possible alliance of Russia and Prussia in
north central and eastern Europe
iii. Britain was weakened by the War of 1812 with the U.S.; the war was ended by
Treaty of Ghent, December, 1814
4. Czar Alexander I of Russia was accompanied by his key aides: Count Razumovsky and
Count Nesselrode
a. Alexander argued that it was Russian opposition in 1812 that was the key to the French
defeat
b. Russia’s goal: to gain all of Poland
c. The huge Russian army stationed near the Austrian border was very influential upon the
delegates
5. Prince Charles de Talleyrand represented defeated France
a. Talleyrand’s skill and deviousness prevented the extreme punishment of France and any
further loss of French power
b. Talleyrand capitalized on the Austrian fear of a deal between Russia and Prussia
i.
Russia offered to support Prussia's desire for Saxony
ii. In return, Prussia would support Russia's desire for Poland
c. Talleyrand used French potential power to influence the other allies against each other
d. Talleyrand argued the necessity of French participation in any restoration of balance of
power: no true balance of power would exist unless France participated
e. Talleyrand combined with the lesser powers and became the spokesman for their
interests
f. Talleyrand offered French aid to Austria against the expansion of Russia and Prussia
g. Britain, at war with the United States, was distracted from the early negotiations and
could not offer Austria support
F. "Final Act of the Congress of Vienna" (June 9, 1815) created a system by bargains and
compromises; no one state was too powerful and the balance was restored
1. The Congress of Vienna established a balance of power that worked until 1870 (the
unification of the German states)
2. The Bourbon monarchy was restored in France; Bourbon monarchs were also restored in
Spain and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; Other monarchies were restored in Savoy,
Parma, Modena, and Papal States
3. Great Britain acquired the colony of South Africa from Holland, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and
British Guiana, Malta, Mauritius, Ionian Islands, and some islands in Caribbean Sea from
France
4. Holland had its monarchy re-established and received the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)
and Luxembourg to compensate for the colonies taken by Great Britain
a. Antwerp and control of mouth of the Rhine were kept from France
b. Holland was strengthened to present a barrier in the north to any French growth in
power
5. Prussia gained territory in the old Holy Roman Empire
a. Prussia received 40% of Saxony; less than it wanted
b. Pomerania was transferred from Sweden to Prussia
c. Prussia gained territory in Rhine Valley to create a barrier on the eastern border of
France
d. Prussia also received a large portion of Poland
6. Saxony was reduced to 60% of its former size: the principle of legitimacy was ignored
7. Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont-Sardinia) created giving Genoa, Piedmont, Turin and the
island of Sardinia to the House of Savoy as a barrier against French power in the southeast
8. Austria (the Habsburgs) received the Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia and the
Tyrol
a. Compensation for its loss of the Austrian Netherlands to Holland
b. Principle of legitimacy was ignored as Venice lost its independence and sovereignty
9. The German Confederation was constructed to replace the old Holy Roman Empire
consisting of 39 states including Prussia and Austria
a. Austria won the presidency and dominated the German Confederation until the 1860's
b. The German states were bound together by a Diet and a mutual assistance agreement
c. This was the clearest violation of Metternich’s principle of legitimacy
d. Metternich intended to use the German Confederation to contain rising German
nationalism, a force that could destroy the Habsburg Empire
10. Sweden received Norway from Denmark as compensation for Finland
11. Russia received Finland from Sweden, a substantial part of Poland, and Bessarabia from
Turkey
12. Switzerland was re-established and guaranteed as independent and neutral
13. Slavery was condemned to appease liberals and Christian humanitarians who were
beginning the abolition movement
III. The Congress System: the basis of the Concert of Europe
A. Background
1. Nationalism (the movement to create nations according to nationality) and liberalism (the
movement to increase the rights of all people without regard to birth) were growing and
challenging the existing order
2. Nationalism and liberalism had been inspired by the French Revolution and spread by the
conquests of Napoleon
3. The Congress System served the conservatives and reactionaries dedicated to the status quo
and to maintaining the balance of power by opposing liberal reforms and revolutionary
nationalism
B. The Holy Alliance (September 26, 1815)
1. The Holy Alliance was formed by the conservative eastern European powers: Russia,
Austria, and Prussia at the invitation of Czar Alexander I
2. The Alliance invoked meaningless religious and moral principles through its reference to
"holy" in the support of the status quo
3. It was an essentially meaningless agreement except in its intent
4. It formed the ideological base for the conservative / reactionary domination of European
affairs after 1815
5. The Holy Alliance and its supporters argued that Christianity opposed the liberal, radical
movements of the post-Napoleonic period
C. Quadruple Alliance (November 20, 1815)
1. The Quadruple Alliance was a treaty of cooperation among Austria, Russia, Prussia, and
Great Britain
2. The Alliance reaffirmed the Treaty of Chaumont sanctioning diplomacy by congress
(conference) and joint action by the members: "collective security"
3. The British joined to prevent the rise of a new, powerful France and to maintain the balance
of power on the continent of Europe
4. Austria, Russia, and Prussia were dedicated to the defeat of liberalism and revolutionary
nationalism
5. Britain gradually changed its attitude about the Alliance
a. Britain responded to new pressures caused by its new urban working class created
through the new industrialization
b. Britain found benefits in the revolutionary nationalism of Latin America and Greece
D. Congress diplomacy was used at conferences (called "congresses"), 1815-1823
1. Goal of the Concert of Europe
a. To have the Powers acting together (in concert) to keep order
b. To stop the growth of liberalism and nationalism and preserve the status quo
2. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (November 15, 1818)
a. France joined the Congress
i.
The Quintuple Alliance was created
ii. Admission of France to the alliance recognized that France was no longer a threat
and again part of the power structure
a. Castlereagh (Britain) and Metternich (Austria) opposed Czar Alexander I's proposed a
policy of international military intervention by the Great Powers
b. The five powers agreed to a peace based on preserving the status quo
3. Congress of Troppau (November, 1820)
a. Important issues bringing the call for a congress: liberal revolutions in Spain and Italy,
the assassination of the Duc de Berry, the Cato Street Conspiracy in Britain, and the rise
of nationalistic groups in German and Italian universities
b. Austria (Metternich), Prussia, and Russia agreed to the Troppau Protocol that
sanctioned intervention against revolutions that endangered the peace and status quo
c. Great Britain (Castlereagh) dissented: British public opinion and national interests were
changing to favor liberal change
4. Congress of Laibach (1821)
a. Revolutions in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Piedmont were led by the
"Carbonari" (the “Carbon Burners), Italian nationalists hoping to create a unified Italy
b. The Congress authorized Austria to use force to restore Ferdinand I as the ruler of
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
c. Austria invaded Italy and suppressed the revolutions
5. Congress of Verona (1822)
a. The important issues: revolution in Greece, revolutions in Spain’s New World colonies
and the movement to liberalize rule in Spain; The Spanish army revolted when ordered
to the Americas
b. France was authorized to restore Ferdinand VII as the absolute monarch of Spain
i.
France invaded and suppressed the rebellion, 1823
ii. Great Britain (Canning) protested against the intervention and left the Concert
iii. No action was taken on the Spanish colonies due to British dissent; Latin American
independence was achieved through this British support
6. Great Britain began to assist the rising liberal and nationalist movements due to the benefits
to its international domination of trade and the benefits from the breakdown of the empires
of other nations
a. The British approved of the newly independent nations in the Americas
b. The British approved of the liberal constitutional monarchy established in Portugal
c. The British supported the revolt of the Greeks against the rule of the Turks
d. The British benefited economically from the increasing trade with newly independent
nations
7. Great Britain backed the U.S. issuing of the Monroe Doctrine (1823) that opposed the
re-establishment of Spanish or other European rule in the revolting Latin American colonies
8. Russia benefited from the revolutions in the Ottoman Empire, therefore Russia supported
the Greek revolution
9. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe was evident in the reaction of the powers to the
revolts in Greece, the Danubian Principalities, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium after 1823
10. Pragmatic national interests were proving more important than the principle of halting the
growth of liberalism and revolutionary nationalism.
IV. Evaluation of the Vienna settlement and the Concert of Europe
A. The Concert of Europe followed in the tradition of the Peace of Westphalia, 1648: it reestablished the balance of power through a conference following a major war
B. The Concert was the first serious attempt to solve international problems through conferences
rather than warfare
C. The Concert was controlled by the conservative and reactionary forces that were opposed to the
changes of liberalism and revolutionary nationalism
D. The Concert ignored and attempted to suppress the growing liberal and nationalist movements
of Europe
E. The Concert deteriorated when national interests outweighed the benefits of peace by Concert
(Napoleon's maxim: "There are no principles in international politics, only self interests.")
F. The dissatisfaction among the subject nationalists and liberals showed throughout the early
nineteenth century in the many revolutionary movements
G. The Concert contributed to the radicalization of European revolutionary movements
H. The actual balance of power established by the Concert of Europe lasted until the unification of
Germany and Italy, 1870: Two new significant powers had been added
I. No major, large-scale wars were fought from 1815-1914 (The Crimean War was fought totally in
Russia and on the Black Sea. The Franco-Prussian War and Balkan Wars were short.)
J. The Concert of Europe became one of the best early models for twentieth century diplomacy
based on "collective security": The peace (security) is kept by nations acting together
(collectively) against aggression or other forces that threaten the peace.