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Introduction and Contents
The Koran is the holy scripture of the Moslem faith Islam, and is revered by approximately one fifth of the world's
population as the infallible word of God, or Allah. Regarded as a perfect earthly reproduction of an uncreated and
eternal heavenly original, referred to in the scripture as the "Mother Book" and "the well-preserved tablet", the Koran
forms the basis of and continual inspiration for all Muslim doctrine and practice. It was the paramount authority of
and driving force behind the establishing of the incipient Muslim State in 7th Century Arabia and retains this position
in the global Islamic community today. The prophet Muhammad was the medium for the heavenly revelation of the
Koran and, according to Islamic belief, received the scripture via the angel Gabriel in the Arabian desert town of
Mecca between c.610 and Muhammad's death in c.632. Also spelt "Qur'an", the name derives from the Arabic verb
"qar'a", meaning to read or recite. In the introduction to Rodwell's translation we are told that the Koran was "at first
not a book, but a strong, living voice". Intended as "a book of guidance for mankind"(K. 2:184) Muhammad recited
the holy revelations to his followers in Mecca and later Medina, and Muslims today still recite the Koran, in order to
receive divine guidance.
The Contents of the Koran
As the word of God, the Koran forms the basis of Islam. Outlined below are the main principles of Islamic doctrine,
contained within it.
God / Allah
The fundamental principle in Islamic doctrine is absolute and uncompromising monotheism. The imperative to
recognise Allah as the one and only divinity is asserted time and again throughout the revelations, "God, there is no
god but He, the living, the everlasting". The God of the Koran is identified with the God of the Jews and the
Christians, referred to as "the people of the Book". However, the Koran explains that these religions have
misrepresented God. Jews "broke their covenant, denied the revelations of God", whilst the Christian Trinitarianism
is vehemently rejected; God is one, and unique. The other Arab gods are rejected as powerless idols; "those whom
you invoke besides God are, like yourselves, His servants" (K. 7:194) "Those to whom you pray besides Him cannot
help you"(K. 7:197).
God is omnipotent and omnipresent; He is the sole creator and sustainer of the world. His creation is divinely
ordered, its perfection reflecting His infinite power, and the universe was brought into being simply by His command:
"Be!". God is everywhere, "He knows what is in land and sea; not a leaf falls, but he knows it"(Koran 6:59), and His
intimacy with man is vividly described by the verse, "We indeed created man; and we know what his soul whispers
within him, and we are closer to man than his jugular vein". Unlike polytheist gods, which tend to be very human,
with human needs and human failings, and even the God of the Old Testament/Torah, who is many times more
dignified and remote than the polytheist deities, yet retains traces of humanity, the God of the Koran is entirely
transcendent. He is not subject to the limitations of the material universe; the work of creation did not tire Him, and
He needs nothing and nobody, "God has no need of the worlds". Moreover, man is not made in God's image; such a
notion would compromise God's fundamental uniqueness and perfection.
Although capable of furious anger, God is infinitely merciful and just. His justice maintains order within the universe,
and indeed, his creation of the universe itself was the supreme act of mercy. Through His prophets God has shown
man the "straight path" ("al- sirat al mustaqim") and His guidance is now clarified in the Koran. The fate of idolaters,
non-believers and the ungrateful is outlined, with warnings and illustrations of the catastrophes that befell those who
strayed from the rightful path in earlier times, often using "biblical" stories. On the Day of Judgement, God will judge
mankind according to his infinite justice and wisdom. The dilemma of monotheism, which lies in the contradiction
between the failings of humanity and God's omnipotence, is solved in Islam by the notion that "God leads astray
whom He will and guides whom He will"16:95. God's omnipotence remains unchallenged leaving man's will
swamped by it. (For ambiguities on this point see below, under "Man").
Man
The design of creation mirrors Gods omnipotence. Everything within the universe has its own, divinely ordained
place and purpose, allowing the whole of creation to function in harmony. God's creation is autonomous as each
created being acts according to its own inherent laws of behaviour, yet not self- determinative as each part of
creation operates within certain limits, designated by God, "everything has been created by us according to a
measure". God alone is entirely unlimited and independent. This fundamental principle is crucial to the Koran's
teaching on the nature and role of man. Unlike the Judeo- Christian doctrine, which states that man is created in
God's own image, the Koran explicitly rejects this notion, as an insult to God's uniqueness and perfection.
Man is acknowledged to be "ignorant and foolhardy", nevertheless he is the noblest of all creation, and has been
given a position of superiority over the remainder of created beings. The purpose of man's role is service and
submission (Islam) to God's will; he is described as "God's viceregent" in the universe. The Judeo-Christian story of
the creation of Adam, the first man, and his disobedience of God and subsequent fall from Paradise is reiterated, but
with a crucial difference: this act is not seen as original sin, which is a defining element in Christian doctrine. The
principle failing of mankind is seen to be his pride. Like the rest of creation, man has been designed to operate
within certain specific limits, however, our somewhat weak nature often fails to understand this. Man's attribute of
rationality would suggest human responsibility as to whether or not to act on pride, and hence a certain amount of
free will. However, the scripture is ambiguous on this point. Whilst there are passages which refer to man's freedom
of action to decide whether or not to accept the Koranic teaching, there are many more points at which God's power
to control His creation indicate divine predestination of history. The verse "Let him that will, take the right path to his
Lord. Yet you cannot choose, except by the will of God."(KORAN76:22) demonstrates this ambiguity, which has led
to significant divergences of opinion within Islam, regarding the essential nature of humanity.
Sin, Righteousness and the "Straight Path"
True faith (iman) consists of complete belief in the Divine Unity and submission to the will of God. In order to
indicate the "straight path" (al-sirat al mustaqim), to true faith, God has periodically sent prophets to communicate
his message to weak and forgetful mankind. Muhammad is the last and greatest in a long line of men elected to
prophethood by God. Many of these are shared with the Judeo-Christian scriptures - Abraham, Noah, Moses and
Jesus, to name a few - and the Koran relates their stories in very similar, although not entirely identical terms.
Others, such as Hud and Salih are derived from Arab traditions. Abraham is the first prophet, and is also regarded
as the first Muslim, being the first to whom the faith was revealed, indeed, the Koran frequently refers to Islam as
"the faith of Abraham". There is also a sense of the Arabs being a "chosen people". Each prophet came from among
a particular tribe or race, in order to guide his own people. The Koran states that God is very careful about whom he
chooses as the recipients of his word, "He leads astray whom he will, and guides whom he will", and also explains
that the Arabs were particularly favoured, being the descendants of Abraham, "Abraham enjoined the faith on his
children" (K.2:132). Muhammad was sent to the Arabs in order to confirm and consummate the messages of the
earlier prophets, "to warn the mother of cities (Mecca) and those round about her"(K. 42:5), in the face of the
imminent Last Day. The Koran is his miraculous revelation, referring to itself as "a guide and joyful tidings for the
faithful, confirming previous scriptures".
The Koran states that at the end of the world, the dead will be resurrected and each individual will be judged
according to his faith and deeds. The Koranic argument for the necessity of this final judgement, is that because not
all moral requital is meted out in our earthly lives, a conclusive judgement at the resurrection is needed to complete
the process. Moreover on a physical level, God, being omnipotent has the ability to give and to destroy all life. As
has been observed, all created life is limited, and therefore subject to God's uncreated and limitless power.
According to the Koran, there will be no intercession (although Islamic tradition developed the notion of intercession
quite early on). God is infinitely merciful, but it is up to his discretion alone which sinners shall be saved. Due to his
weakness of nature, man is ever prone to forget of willfully reject the word of God. He is encouraged in this by the
machinations of Satan (Shaytan), whom the Koran teaches was an angel who fell from divine favour by an act of
disobedience resulting from his sinful pride. It seems that prior to Muhammad man has been particularly obdurate
regarding God's message.
Very few men have accepted the grace of God; most have rejected it, and become "the ungrateful" (kuffar). Humans
have proved especially prone to the grave sin of polytheism. However, as God is infinitely merciful, it is always
possible for a sinner to repent, and to redeem his soul by a genuine conversion to faith in the Divine Unity, which will
have the effect of annulling all previous sins. Those who have true faith will be saved and will enter heaven, whilst
the condemned will burn in hell. Heaven and Hell are described as both spiritual and physical states. The blessed
will bask in the blissful pleasure of divine grace, and shall experience endless physical enjoyment "His (the
righteous man) shall be a Blissful state in a lofty garden, with clusters of fruit within his reach" (K.69:20). On the
other hand, the damned will suffer fire in their hearts and will also have to endure the physical torments of "chains
and fetters and a blazing fire".
Socio-Economic Doctrine / Social Legislation
Islam, or complete submission to the will of God requires the implementation of moral principles both individually
and within the sociopolitical order. To this end the Koran includes much practical direction on the correct way to live
one's life, in relation to God, to one's own soul, and to other people. Holy life is envisaged within a closely-knit
Muslim community, or "Ummah". This brotherhood of the faithful is a very important notion within the Koran;
Muslims are addressed as one family, the descendants of Abraham, and are expected to behave as such, according
to the instructions laid out in the Koran. Muslims are referred to as "brothers unto each other" and the Ummah as
"the best community produced for mankind", whose function it is to "enjoin good and forbid evil" and to cement the
Koran's moral and socio-economic doctrine. Laying down often very specific rules regarding almost all aspects of
community life, including marriage, divorce, inheritance, adultery, drinking, eating, gambling, quarrels, and general
social conduct, the Koran forms the basis for all Islamic law.
Although at points merely fragmentary, the Koran also provides directives for the basic duties of the faithful, known
as the "Five Pillars of Islam". These are: the Shadadah, or profession of faith; prayer; the Zakat, or community tax;
fasting and the Hajj, or pilgrimage. The Shadadah, "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the prophet of God", as
the first pillar, reflects the fundamental importance of belief in the uniqueness and unity of God, reiterated rigorously
throughout the Koran. It also demonstrates the sanctity of the Koran, the physical incarnation of Muhammad's holy
message, as does the second pillar, prayer. As the revelation of God's will, intimate knowledge of the Koran is
essential in Islam, indeed, the scripture states, "when you recite the Koran, seek refuge in God from accursed
Satan: no power has he over those who believe and put their trust in their Lord"(K. 16;95). Zakat, the third pillar, is
an obligatory tax, which translated literally means "purification". This is the only permanent tax levied by the Koran
and was payable annually on food grains, cattle, and cash, after one year's possession. It was collectable by the
state, to be used primarily for the relief of the poor, but was also put towards other public services within the
Ummah. This doctrine of social service is integral to Koranic teaching, particularly in view of man's weak and selfish
nature, "Man is by nature timid; when evil befalls him, he panics, but when good things come to him he prevents
them from reaching others". The Koran teaches that charitable expenditure will constitute a credit with God, whilst
usury and the hoarding of wealth and ignoring the needs of the poor, will lead to fearful punishment in the life after
death. Such behaviour is seen to be one of the main causes of the decay of earthly societies;, " Give generously to
the cause of God and do not with your own hands cast yourselves into destruction"(K.2:193)
Fasting during the month of Ramadan (the ninth month in the Muslim lunar calendar) is the fourth pillar of the faith.
The Koran lays down (K. 2.183-85) that the it was in this month that Muhammad received his revelations, and that in
order to remember this, and to give thanks, believers should fast during this period, "He (God) desires you to fast
the whole month so that you may magnify God and render thanks to Him for giving you His guidance". The Fifth
pillar is the Hajj, the annual pilgrimage to the sacred Ka'aba sanctuary at Mecca during the month of Ramadan. This
too has a basis in the Koran, which relates how Abraham, the father of Islam, built the sanctuary for the worship of
the One God, and pilgrimage here is proscribed "provided one can afford it" in order to glorify God and reaffirm
personal faith.
Form / Literary Character
The Koran as we find it today is arranged in 114 units of greatly varying length, called suras, which are connected in
no obvious fashion. There is no narrative framework. The suras themselves have little internal unity. Several distinct
topics may be included within one sura, with abrupt changes of subject, parallel versions, interpolations and rhyme
dislocations. In the light of this it has been concluded that some of the present suras or parts of them may once
have been joined to others. The emphases of Koranic teachings vary according to the periods of revelation. The
chronology of the suras is of fundamental importance to Koranic scholarship, providing the ground for following the
evolution of Muhammad's thought and connecting certain verses in the Koran with events in early Islamic history.
However, the highly composite nature of many of the suras makes ordering them extremely problematic. As a broad
guideline, there is a general consensus between scholars, both Muslim and Western, that the shortest suras are the
oldest, dating from the Meccan period (c.610-622), and the longer ones are later, and were revealed during
Muhammad's time in Medina (c.622-632).
There is considerable divergence in both style and content between the two periods of revelation. The early,
Meccan suras are generally concerned with ethical and spiritual teachings and constitute an emphatic call to
religious obedience in the light of the approaching Day of Judgement, while the later suras are much more
concerned with social legislation and politico- moral principles, in order to prepare the community to support the holy
life of the Muslim brotherhood, according to the directives of God. Extended narratives (often "biblical")are also
employed in the longer suras in homiletic fashion to illustrate the fate of those who ignore prophets and eschew the
straight path. As regards linguistic style, in the shorter and probably earlier verses, rhymed prose is employed with
short sentences and vivid expressions. In the longer verses there is less poetic force. The language is more
detailed, complicated and often rather prosaic. The vast majority of the Koran is the words of God, speaking in the
first person plural (we). The "you" to whom God is speaking is Muhammad. When Muhammad speaks to his
compatriots, his instructions are introduced by the command "say", emphasising that he is speaking by divine
injunction only. Sometimes the form is dramatic, with objections from Muhammad's opponents answered by
counter-arguments.
Favourite mantric refrains such as "God is forgiving, compassionate" or "most of them know nothing" recur
throughout the work, sometimes with little or no connection to the immediate context. Are they perhaps added to
produce a rhyme? Brief oaths, parables and direct warnings and threats are among the other literary forms
employed. The result of this diverse literary style can sometimes baffle the casual observer. However, Seyyid
Hussein Nasr argues in his book "Ideals and Realities of Islam", that the dramatic shifts in person, mood, tense and
style, seen in the Koran, are entirely deliberate, and intended to illustrate the power of God "One feels through the
shattering effect left upon the language of the Koran, the power of the Divine whence it originated", and he is
certainly not alone in this opinion. Muslims regard the language of the Koran as divinely beautiful, impossible to
imitate or translate, and to attempt as much would be blasphemy.
Sociopolitical and Historical Framework
A reconstruction of the social and political context within which the Koran originated is fraught with difficulties. Early
Islam is a controversial subject within which there is little academic consensus. Thanks to the innumerable hadith
(traditions) regarding the life and times of the Prophet, there is much information, but it is opaque in the extreme.
The first Islamic history was transmitted orally, according to the tribal tradition, and it was not until the second half of
the eighth century, as the Islamic regime matured and settled into the Near East over one hundred years after the
death of the prophet, that these oral narratives, or hadith, were committed to paper. Moreover, it was not till the late
ninth and tenth centuries that a definitive version (or versions) of the history of the early years was crystalised. The
Islamic sources, as we find them today, date from this period of "classical" Islamic historiography and later, and
represent a selection, compilation, editing and reworking of earlier narratives.
One of our most important sources regarding the sociopolitical and historical framework of the Koran is Ibn Ishaq's
biography of Muhammad. This was composed in the second half of the eighth century (and was itself based on
earlier traditions) however, the original version has since been lost, and the form in which it is today is an abridged
version by the scholar Ibn Hisham. In his introduction to the work, Ibn Hisham admits that he has omitted parts of
Ibn Ishaq's work, which he considers to be superfluous, irrelevant, distasteful or untrustworthy. Such authorial
explanation is in fact rare, most compilers of the historical traditions felt under no obligation to indicate their
omissions. Indeed, the compilers apparently had complete freedom of wording in reproducing their source. To
further confuse the modern observer, in general no effort was made to construct a connected narrative; there are
often several reports on one topic, which may even be contradictory, and there is little authorial intervention to clarify
matters. Many modern western historians have taken the ultra- sceptical view that these sources have very little to
do with the seventh century Arabian reality. Instead, they see the sources as the product of two centuries of violent
ideological conflict during which so much spurious material was generated, which had been repeatedly collected
and reinterpreted for different motives, such that no accurate record of the past could survive.
However, this approach is rejected by many who believe that although rigorous assessment is imperative, a 'kernel
of truth' can be found within the sources, and a tentative reconstruction of 7th Century Arabia attempted. Pre-Islamic
Arabia hosted an essentially egalitarian and anarchic tribal society. The desert lacked the resources to support an
intricate civilisation, and the statecraft of bureaucracies, aristocracies, cities and priesthoods that inevitably
accompany settled and developed societies. The nomads within this society lived a very isolated and mobile
existence, which contributed to the general homogeneity of Arabia; the Arabs of the North and South were a single
ethnic people, with one language and one culture. As would be demonstrated by Muhammad, this stateless, tribal
society held great potential for political and ideological creativity. Moreover, the highly mobile and warlike tribes
were to prove a very effective resource of military strength, which facilitated the Arab expansion under the banner of
Islam. The Arab religion prior to Islam was a simple form of polytheism, with no developed mythology or structure
within society. It was very old and very stable. Monotheism was not unknown in the peninsula; there were Jewish
and Christian communities both bordering Arabia and living within it. Moreover, the Fifth century Greek historian
Sozomenus records the existence of Arabian tribes who believed themselves to be the heirs of Ishmael and of the
pure monotheist "religion of Abraham".
The Life of Muhammad
According to the Islamic sources, 7th Century Mecca was a thriving mercantile centre, involved in the lucrative
Western Arabian transit trade in luxuries such as slaves and spices. Tradition relates that Muhammad was born in
Mecca around the year 570. As a youth he travelled with the trading caravans from Mecca to Syria, and at the age
of twenty five he married Khadijah, a wealthy widow fifteen years his senior. He appears to have come under the
influence of a group of spiritual fundamentalists, known as "hanifs" who, impressed by Jewish and Christian
monotheism, had rejected idolatry for an ascetic religion of their own. Muhammad received his first revelation
(traditionally recognised as verse 96) around the year 610, whilst in solitary prayer and meditation, as was his
custom.
For the next 10-15 years Muhammad remained in Mecca, receiving episodic revelation. A small group of converts to
his prophesy gathered, and a simple ritual and morality developed. Initially, whilst maintaining that Allah was the
supreme God, Muhammad also allowed that certain pagan Arabic goddesses were minor deities, serving Allah. The
verses referring to these goddesses have become known as the 'Satanic Verses'. The verse 22:52 describes how
Satan is wont to attempt to mislead God's prophets with false revelations. Under direction from God, Muhammad
soon remedied his error, and moved onto hardline monotheism. His attacks on the local pagan gods offended the
Meccans, and in 622 Muhammad was forced to flee, with his small following, to nearby Medina. This event is known
as the Hijra, and was to be a turning point in Muhammad's career. Medina, formerly known as Yathrib, was a rich
oasis town, which suffered recurrent civil strife as it lacked an effective central authority.
Muhammad was seen as a positive element, as the conspicuous socio- economic content of his teaching could
unite the town in Islam, and solve its domestic problems. Muhammad declared the existence of the Ummah, (the
brotherhood of Muslims) and the conditions that were to regulate it, as directed by God. Political and social order
were created and sustained, and henceforth all authority, both religious and temporal, was based on the Ummah. At
the head of the Ummah, Muhammad strove to consolidate his power both within and without of the Ummah. He
preached the importance of Jihad, or holy war, which must be continually waged against unbelievers until God's
cause prevails, "The Believers fight in the way of God, the unbelievers in the way of idols; so fight the friends of
Satan!"(K. 4:78) Opponents were successfully defeated within Medina; Muhammad's attention was then turned
towards securing control of the Hijaz, the area of Western Arabia, in which Medina and Mecca lay. The Meccans
were subdued following the Battle of Badr in 624, and by the time of the Prophet's death in 632, most of Arabia had
submitted to the will of God and the authority of the Ummah.
Historical analysis of the Rise of Islam
Much has been made of Muhammad's role as a merchant, within a mercantile society, in accounting for the
dramatic rise of Islam. Historians have speculated that Muhammad was influenced by various forms of Jewish and
Christian monotheism, whilst travelling with the merchant caravans. It has also been suggested that the mercantile
wealth and influence of Mecca was significant in bringing the rest of Arabia under the control of the Ummah. Others
have suggested that a recent transition to a mercantile economy within Mecca had undermined the traditional tribal
order, leading to social and moral malaise. Muhammad's preaching can be seen as a response to this decay,
offering social and moral reform. Was there a general spiritual crisis in sixth century Arabia? There was certainly
widespread eschatological awareness throughout the civilised world at this time, and it is not unlikely that Arabia
experienced similar apocalyptic trends.
Another issue to consider is the originality of Muhammad and his message: did he arise out of a milieu of prophets
and religious experimentalism? In verse 25:5 of the Koran, there is an indignant denial of an accusation that
Muhammad's preaching was no more than a rehash of old stories, "And they say: 'Fables of the ancients he has
written'".
How significant was the influence of Christianity and particularly Judaism on Islam? Was there much that was
distinctively Islamic already present in Arabia - the notion of the "religion of Abraham" was not an invention of
Muhammad's, but had existed in Western Arabia for many years? Alternatively, there are some who suggest that it
was not so much the potency of Muhammad's religious message, but rather the ongoing efficiency of his social and
political control, enforced by Jihad, or holy war, that accounts for the astonishing success of early Islam. There is so
little evidence pertaining to pre-Islamic Arabia that theories surrounding the rise of Islam can only be speculative,
however, it is certainly interesting to bear the above in mind when approaching the Koran.
Interpretations
1. MUSLIM EXEGESIS
From the very beginning the study of the Koran was linked to the study of Arabic grammar and lexicography.
By the eighth century two schools of Arabic learning had developed at Basra and Kufa, both in modern Iraq.
Scholars known as qurra', singular qari' (literally "readers") were philologians who were specialists on the
text of the Koran. Several different readings on the Koran were officially accepted, although all had to be
based on the 'Uthmanic codex. The correct philological interpretation of the Koran was essential to all
theological speculation on the scripture, as understanding of the grammatical structure and lexical meaning
of the text was prerequisite to a correct understanding and application of its teachings. A special branch of
learning was devoted to Koranic exegesis, known as 'tasfir'. As well as the study of grammar and
lexicography, other resources were used to elucidate the meaning of a Koranic passage. Traditions
concerning the circumstances of particular revelations, or concerning the interpretation and teaching of
Muhammad were regarded as particularly important, and were collected and recorded.
The correct interpretation of the Koran was doubly important to the Muslim state as not only was the Koran
the ultimate authority on all religious questions, but it was also the basis of Muslim law. There are two
especially renowned early works of tasfir. These are the commentary of al-Tabari (839-923), which is an
encyclopaedic collection of all scholarship in the field, and the Kashshaf of Zamakhshari. This last is
particularly interesting since it has gained almost canonical status, despite the heretical beliefs of the author.
Zamakhshari was a Mu'tazilite, a group who sought to introduce philosophical principles from Greek
rationalism into Islamic thought. They denied the doctrine that the Koran was uncreated and eternal,
because this would compromise and encroach on the uniqueness and oneness of God. Instead, they
asserted that the Koran was created by God, but their argument was rejected by Islamic orthodoxy.
The theological schools of medieval Islam all sought to support their doctrines with the aid of Koranic
exegesis. There also developed a tradition of 'ta'wil' or allegorical interpretation of the Koran, especially in
Sufi literature, in which the doctrines of Islamic mysticism are found hidden behind the literal sense of the
scripture. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Islamic modernism arose, which sought to revive Islam
from its state of degradation by returning to the pure and uncorrupted Islam of the "ancestors". As the oldest
source of Islam, the Koran was central to modernists, and they established principles necessary for correct
understanding of the text. They held that much traditional exegesis had distorted the teachings of the
prophet and careful reinterpretation of the Koran, as the original source of Islam, was the only path to the
truth of God. Modernists also sought to reconcile Islam with modern science. Muhammad 'Abduh, the
founder of modernism in Egypt, argued that as the literal word of God, nothing in the Koran can be false or
antiquated. He attempted to show that much of modern scientific understanding was already present in the
Koran. For example, the jinn of sura 2:176 that cause disease are interpreted as microbes, and the words in
verse 2:250 "Many a small band has, by God's grace, vanquished a mighty army. God is with those who
endure with fortitude" is taken to refer to Darwin's theory of natural selection.
More recently, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, an Indian Muslim scholar, has argued that it is necessary to
interpret the Koran against the background of its environment. Therefore it is essential to study the cultures
and languages of ancient Arabia and of other Semitic peoples. A study of the historical circumstances in
which the Koran originated will facilitate understanding of what the revelation meant to those who received it,
and thus clarify the way the scripture was originally interpreted. Dr Rabar, in his study "The God of
Justice"(1960), argued that, in order to elucidate the Koran, traditional exegesis and medieval dogmatics
should be consulted, but above all, the Koran itself is the greatest aid to interpreting the holy word of God,
and different Koranic passages should be used in comparison, in order to throw light on each other. Such
ideas are rejected by Muslim orthodoxy, but they do suggest the inception of a more historical view of the
Koran, which attempts to distinguish the central religious ideas from the historical remnants of a bygone age.
2. MODERN WESTERN CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE KORAN AS A HISTORICAL DOCUMENT
Occidental critical analysis of the Koran has come some way since Gibbon labelled the work an "incoherent
rhapsody of fable". Nevertheless, the continued treatment of the Koran as a historical document, rather than
a holy text has meant that most western scholarship remains unacceptable to the majority of Muslims. The
following are summaries of some of the more thought-provoking, if contentious, of recent scholarship.
a. JOHN WANSBOROUGH
Publication: Qur'anic Studies: Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation, (1977)
Wansborough took a controversial stance by arguing that the Koran grew out of sectarian controversies over
a long time - perhaps 200 years - in the early history of Islam, and was projected back onto an Arabian point
of origin. Moreover, he proposes
Compilation of the Koran
Muslim tradition provides a number of varying accounts regarding the compilation of the revelations, and there has
been considerable disagreement during the history of Islam, as to the truth. The general consensus is, that there
was no single manuscript of the Koran during the lifetime of the Prophet (although there are some traditions that
describe Muhammad dictating portions of the Koran to his secretaries). Instead, the verses of the Koran were
recorded on "pieces of papyrus, flat stones, palm leaves, shoulder blades and ribs of animals, pieces of leather and
wooden boards and in the hearts of men".
Traditions recount that during the caliphate of 'Umar there was concern to collect the revelations, to safeguard
against parts being lost forever, following the battle of Yamamah in 633, in which a great number of those who knew
the Koran by heart had been killed. It is generally accepted that the Koran as we know it today, was compiled during
the caliphate of Uthman, the third Caliph, c.650AD. The story goes that due to concern over divergences in Koranic
recitation, Uthman was asked to prepare an official text. Once completed, this definitive version was sent to the
major Arab settlements of the day at Kufa, Basra, Damascus, and perhaps Mecca and the Yemen also. All other
versions were ordered to be destroyed. There remains an element of controversy within Islam as to the validity of
the varying traditions. Shi'ite Muslims argue that the credit for the first codex should be given to their founder 'Ali, the
fourth Caliph, but that the truth has been masked by the ascendancy of the Sunni Muslims in the early years
following the conquest. At the same time, others argue another theories that the Koran was compiled under 'Umar
or Abu Bakr are invented by the enemies of Uthman, a very unpopular Caliph, and by the adversaries of his
descendants, the Umayyad Caliphs, who ruled for much of the seventh and eighth centuries. The arguments are
cyclical and, quite possibly, reflect more the political realities of the Caliphate of the late seventh, eighth and ninth
centuries, than the events of the mid-seventh century within Arabia.
Authenticity and Completeness of the Koran
Variant versions, missing and added verses.
Muslim orthodoxy holds that Uthman's Koran contains all of Muhammad's revelations, faithfully preserved, as they
were revealed. However, some Muslim scholarship will allow the possibility that some of the Koran may have been
lost or perverted. The earliest, securely dated, manuscripts of the Koran date from the ninth Century, and there exist
fragments that possibly date from the early eighth or even seventh Centuries. Between these manuscripts
themselves and in comparison to the modern Koran, there is quite wide variation in the wording of verses, although
the character and meaning is generally constant. The ordering of the suras is also a little different from what has
become the standard. Another very early record of Koranic material is in the coins and building inscriptions from the
caliphate of Abd al-Malik, 685-705. These fragments are undoubtedly Koranic, yet they are slightly different to the
standard wording. Were the authorities so blasphemous as to paraphrase the word of God, or was a different
rescension common at the time? Suyuti (d. 1505), a very famous and revered commentator on the Koran, in his
work Ibn 'Umar al Khattab, quotes the pious son of the Caliph Umar as saying, "Let none of you say that he
(Uthman) has the whole of the Koran in his possession. How does he know what the whole is? Much of the Koran
has gone." He also records the tradition in which 'Amish, the wife of the Prophet, says "During the time of the
Prophet, the chapter of the Parties used to be 200 verses when read. When 'Uthman edited the copies of the Koran,
only the current verses were recorded".
Indeed, the actual authenticity of some verses has been called into question by Muslims themselves. Many
Khajarites, followers of 'Ali in the early years, rejected the story of Joseph, considering it an erotic tale which did not
belong in the holy Koran. The western historian H. Hirschfeld has expressed scepticism regarding those verses in
which the name of Muhammad occurs. Muhammad means "praised" and Hirschfeld is suspicious of such an
uncommon name being borne by the Prophet.
It seems likely that following the death of Muhammad in 632, there were many attempts to collect the revelations,
resulting in a number of different codices. Furthermore, it appears that Uthman's attempt to standardise the Koran
by canonising the Medinan codex was not entirely successful, and a number of variant traditions survived. The
probability of variant texts is increased by the fact that early Arabic text was purely consonantal, with no indication of
the vowels. Moreover, this consonantal text was unpointed. This means that the dots that distinguish an "f" from a
"q" or an "s" from a "d" were missing, so many variant readings were possible. The Arabic scripta plena, fully
vowelled and pointed, was not perfected till the late ninth Century.
Sample Questions
1. How far can a knowledge of the historical context in which Islam began assist an understanding of the Koran?
The issues in question here are the obscurity of early Islam, the opaqueness of the Muslim sources, and the dearth
of other reliable historical information. Pre-Islamic Arabia and the early Islamic State were a-literate, and there is no
appropriate contemporary and contopological setting against which to read the Koran. A comparison with
Christianity is beneficial here: for early Islam, there is no Josephus to provide a contemporary political context, no
apocrypha for a spiritual context, and no Scrolls to illuminate a sectarian milieu. Stress the problems with using the
Islamic sources, which have been contaminated by later political and religious controversy. Secondly, approach the
main thrust of the question. What are the main messages of the Koran, and why did they have such an impressive
impact on their audience? How much is there that is novel within the Koran, and how much of what is distinctively
Islamic was already present in Western Arabia? What is the audience of Muhammad's revelations and how would
they have interpreted the revelations? Was it the potency of the Koran's religious message that was so irresistible or
was it the novelty of its social and political legislation?
2. "Discuss the theological themes of the Koran, and whether theology is its main focus"
Discuss the theological themes outlined above: the Koran's attitude towards God, the universe, mankind, sin and
righteousness, heaven and hell. Here, reference to the Fatiha could perhaps be used as an introduction. The Fatiha
is the opening sura, in which almost all the fundamental theological principles of Islam are outlined within a very few
words: the verse speaks of one single God and two kinds of people, the Blessed, towards whom God is "merciful
and compassionate" and those with whom God is angry, having strayed from the "straight path". Next, describe the
socio-economic and socio-political doctrine contained within the Koran. On which does the main focus lie? How
interrelated are the two i.e. is the social legislation simply the practical application of the Koran's spiritual doctrines,
or is it something more?