Download 3rd Edition: Chapter 4

Chapter 4
Network Layer
Chapter 4: Network Layer
Chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network layer
services:
network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)
 dealing with scale
 IPv4 and IPv6

Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
Network layer
 transport segment from sending
to receiving host
 on sending side encapsulates
segments into datagrams
application
transport
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
 on rcving side, delivers segments
to transport layer
host and router
all IP datagrams passing through
it
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
network
data link
data link
physical
physical
network
data link
physical
 network layer protocols in every
 router examines header fields in
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
application
transport
network
data link
physical
Two Key Network-Layer Functions
 forwarding: move
packets from router’s
input to appropriate
router output
 routing: determine
route taken by
packets from source
to dest.

routing algorithms
analogy:
 routing: process of
planning trip from
source to dest
 forwarding: process
of getting through
single interchange
Interplay between routing and forwarding
routing algorithm
local forwarding table
header value output link
0100
0101
0111
1001
3
2
2
1
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111
1
3 2
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
Example services for
individual datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery
 guaranteed delivery
with less than 40 msec
delay
Example services for a
flow of datagrams:
 in-order datagram
delivery
 guaranteed minimum
bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on
changes in interpacket spacing (jitter)
Network layer service models:
Network
Architecture
Internet
Service
Model
Guarantees ?
Congestion
Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
best effort none
ATM
CBR
ATM
VBR
ATM
ABR
ATM
UBR
constant
rate
guaranteed
rate
guaranteed
minimum
none
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
no (inferred
via loss)
no
congestion
no
congestion
yes
no
yes
no
no
CBR = constant bit-rate (phone, not VoIP)
VBR = variable bit-rate (e.g., variable bit-rate video, audio)
ABR = available bit-rate. Like best effort but with guaranteed minimum bit-rate, but it
gets feedback from the network to adjust the sending rate
UBR = unspecified bit-rate. Like best effort
Why the different service models
 Some application require bit-rate and delay guarantees.
 E.g., VoIP needs low delay (under 150 ms one-way is best,
over 400ms one-way is typically unacceptable) and 15kbps
 Thus, it would be nice if whenever the VoIP started, the
network would reserve enough bandwidth for the call


otherwise, I will just use my landline
i.e., I am willing to pay for this service (except that paying for
calls this against network neutrality)
 But this is wasteful


In VoIP, only one side talks at a time
But the network can’t reserve half of the bit-rate.
 The network can reserve the full bandwidth. And give the
unused bandwidth as ABR (with the average bandwidth of ½
the VoIP bit-rate, since this is the average unused bit-rate)
 However, if the VoIP traffic requires the bandwidth, the
ABR must stop.
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
Network layer connection and
connection-less service
 datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
 VC network provides network-layer
connection service
Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”


performance-wise
network actions along source-to-dest path
 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable service)
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1.
2.
3.
path from source to destination
VC numbers
entries in forwarding tables in routers along path

A packet belonging to VC carries VC number (rather than
dest address)

However, it is difficult to ensure that the VC number is
unique across the network

Instead, the VC number is changed at each link
Packet Switching
Data is in packets, not streams.
 Must be digital
 Each packet has an address
 A switch/router reads the whole packet, then reads the address and
forwards the packet – store and forward
If destination
is 1, then next
hop is C
If destination
is 1, then next
If destination
hop is B
B
is 1, then next

A
data1
hop is
data1
data1
C
data1
D
client
F
Server: address = 1
E
Forwarding table
VC number
22
12
1
Forwarding table in
northwest router:
Incoming interface
1
2
3
1
…
2
32
3
interface
number
Incoming VC #
12
63
7
97
…
Outgoing interface
3
1
2
3
…
Outgoing VC #
22
18
17
87
…
Routers maintain connection state information!
It is much easier to perform table lookup (to get the next hop information)
on a 20-bit VC number than a 32 bit IP address (but this is not that important with high-speed ASICs)
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols
 used to setup, maintain teardown VC
 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet
application
transport 5. Data flow begins
network 4. Call connected
data link 1. Initiate call
physical
6. Receive data application
3. Accept call transport
2. incoming call network
data link
physical
Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host address
 packets between same source-dest pair may take
different paths
application
transport
network
data link 1. Send data
physical
application
transport
2. Receive data network
data link
physical
MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching)
 MPLS is widely used in large ISPs (e.g., AT&T)
 MPLS is a compromise between IP and VC.
 MPLS can run over an IP network.
 Today, most routers support MPLS and IP at the same
time
 MPLS uses label switching, which the the same idea as
VC number



Packets have a 20-bit label
When a packet arrives on an interface, the a table lookup is
performed, the output interface is found, next label is found,
and the current label is changed to the next label
Label lookup is faster than IP address lookup. But speed isn’t
really a concern
MPLS Architecture
 Conceptually, there are three types of routers



Ingress routers – where packets enter the network (e.g., move
from UD to Cogent )
Egress routers – where packets exit the network (e.g., move
from Cogent to AT&T)
Internal routers – where packets remain inside the network
 When an IP packet arrives at an ingress routers, a lookup is
performed based on the IP address


If a match is found, then an MPLS header is put on the packet
along with the next hop label. That is, the packet is placed into
an MPLS tunnel
From this point, the IP header is never examined. The
forwarding is based on the MPLS label
 When the packet arrives at an internal router, the label is
switched, just like in a VC
 When the packet reaches the egress router, the MPLS
header is removed and the IP address is examined to
determine the next hop (just like a regular IP router)
MPLS and Traffic Engineering
 MPLS allows packets to follow tunnels
 These tunnels can be designed to reduce
the offered load on a link
Chicago
SF
NY
This link is congested with NY-SF,
DC-SF, and Chicago-SF traffic
Saint Louis
DC
Dallas
MPLS and Traffic Engineering
Chicago
NY
SF
Saint Louis
DC
Dallas
•Packets arrive at Saint Louis with SF as destination, but they take
different paths.
•MPLS can do this
•But IP forwarding cannot do this
•IP forwarding only examines the destination IP
•Examining the 64 bit source and destination could accomplish this,
but that would take a large table
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
Router Architecture Overview
Two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
Input Port Functions
Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer:
e.g., Ethernet
see chapter 5
Decentralized switching:
 given datagram dest., lookup output port
using forwarding table in input port
memory
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Three types of switching fabrics
Switching Via Memory
First generation routers:
 traditional computers with switching under direct
control of CPU
packet copied to system’s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus
crossings per datagram)
Input
Port
Memory
Output
Port
System Bus
Switching Via a Bus
 datagram from input port memory
to output port memory via a shared
bus
 bus contention: switching speed
limited by bus bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient
speed for access and enterprise
routers
Switching Via An Interconnection
Network
 overcome bus bandwidth limitations
 Banyan networks, other interconnection nets
initially developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting datagram into fixed
length cells, switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps through the
interconnection network
Output Ports
 Buffering required when datagrams arrive from
fabric faster than the transmission rate
 Scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission
Output port queueing
 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds
output line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
How much buffering?
 RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering
equal to “typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times
link capacity C

e.g., C = 10 Gps link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
 Recent recommendation: with N flows,
buffering equal to RTT. C
N
Input Port Queuing
 Fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing
may occur at input queues
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram
at front of queue prevents others in queue from
moving forward
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
Network
layer
IP protocol
•addressing conventions
•datagram format
•packet handling conventions
Routing protocols
•path selection
•RIP, OSPF, BGP
forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
•error reporting
•router “signaling”
Link layer
physical layer
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
IPv4 datagram format
IP protocol version
number
header length
(bytes)
“type” of data
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to
how much overhead
with TCP?
 20 bytes of TCP
 20 bytes of IP
 = 40 bytes + app
layer overhead
32 bits
ver
head. type of
len service
16-bit identifier
time to
live
upper
layer
total datagram
length (bytes)
length
fragment
flgs
offset
header
checksum
for
fragmentation/
reassembly
32 bit source IP address
32 bit destination IP address
Options (if any)
data
(variable length,
typically a TCP
or UDP segment)
E.g. timestamp,
record route
taken, specify
list of routers
to visit. Typically,
these are ignored
IPv4 Fragmentation & Reassembly


network links have MTU (max.transfer
size) - largest possible link-level frame.
 different link types, different
MTUs
 E.g., ethernet allows 1500B
frames
 802.11 allows 2346B frames
It would be very difficult for the end
host to know the correct packet size


Note that larger packets are more
efficient (less bandwidth is consumed
by the header)
Large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within the network
 one datagram becomes several
datagrams
 “reassembled” only at final
destination
 IP header bits used to identify,
order related fragments
fragmentation:
in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
reassembly
IPv4 Fragmentation and
Reassembly
Example
 4000 byte
datagram
 MTU = 1500 bytes
1480 bytes in
data field
offset =
1480/8
length ID fragflag offset
=4000 =x
=0
=0
One large datagram becomes
several smaller datagrams
length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x
=1
=0
length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x
=1
=185
length ID fragflag offset
=1040 =x
=0
=370
Stealthy Scanning
 Before attacking a network, one must learn which hosts are
present.

That is, which IP addresses have host that are running various services
(e.g., listening on various TCP ports)
 This is done by scanning. For example, sending an ICMP ping
message to random IP address or sending TCP-SYN messages


What happens if a host receives an TCP-SYN on a port that is not
listening
It depends on the OS, but the typically, a TCP-RST packet is generated
 ISPs (e.g., UD) will look for scanners and take action (e.g.,
disconnect them)
 So what is an attacker to do?
Stealthy Scanning
victim
If victim exists and port is open: TCP-SYN-ACK
Some machine is confused (it didn’t send a TCP-SYN)
TCP-RST with IP-ID = X + 1
SomeMachine
ICMP echo-request (ping)
TCP-SYN: Dest=Victim, Source=SomeMachine
attacker
Attacker records IP-ID=X
echo reply
with IP-ID
ICMP ICMP
echo reply
with IP-ID
= X = X+2
Since the IP-ID incremented by 2, the victim must have
sent a SYN-ACK.
If the IP-ID only incremented by 1, then the victim is not
listening on the port, or does not exist
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
IP Addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit identifier
for host, router interface
 interface: connection
between host/router and
physical link



router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
host typically has a small
number (ethernet and wifi)
IP addresses associated with
each interface
•
•
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
It is possible to have more than
one
Virtual machines could each have
an IP address
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
223
1
1
Ipv4 special addresses: http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5735
1
Subnets
 IP address:


subnet part (high order
bits)
host part (low order bits)
 What’s a subnet ?


device interfaces with
same subnet part of IP
address
can physically reach each
other without intervening
router (but perhaps a
layer 2 switch)
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
subnet
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
network consisting of 3 subnets
Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
Recipe
 To determine the subnets,
detach each interface
from its host or router,
creating islands of isolated
networks. Each isolated
network is called a subnet.
223.1.3.0/24
Subnet mask: /24
Subnets
223.1.1.2
How many?
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2
223.1.7.0
223.1.9.1
223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1
223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

Subnet part or
CIDR-block
host
part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does network get subnet part of IP
addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s
address space
ISP's block
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0
Organization 1
Organization 2
...
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000
11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000
…..
….
200.23.16.0/23
200.23.18.0/23
200.23.20.0/23
….
Organization 7
11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000
200.23.30.0/23
Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
ISP1
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
Border Router
200.23.30.0/23
ISP2
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
This way, the whole 32 bit address does not need to be examined
Internet
Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISP2 has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
ISP1
“Send me anything
with addresses
Beginning with
200.23.16.0/20”
Border Router
200.23.30.0/23
ISP2
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
Internet
Longest prefix matching
Border Router Forwarding Table
Prefix Match
200.23.16.0/20
200.23.18.0/23
199.31.0.0/16
otherwise
Link Interface
0
1
1
2
If a packet with destination address 200.23.18.12 arrives at the boarder
router, then is it forwarding to interface 0 or 1?
Since interface 1 has a longer match, it goes to interface 1
Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISP2 has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
ISP1
“Send me anything
with addresses
Beginning with
200.23.16.0/20
”
Border Router
200.23.30.0/23
ISP2
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
Internet
Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISP2 has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
ISP1
“Send me anything
with addresses
Beginning with
200.23.16.0/20
200.23.18.0/24
200.23.19.0/24”
Border Router
200.23.30.0/23
ISP2
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
Internet
IP addressing: the last word...
Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

ICANN allocates chunks of addresses to Regional
Internet Registry (RIR), which allocate them to
organizations in their region
NAT: Network Address Translation
rest of
Internet
local network
(e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
All datagrams leaving local
network have same single source
NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7,
different source port numbers
Datagrams with source or
destination in this network
have 10.0.0/24 address for
source, destination (as usual)
NAT: Network Address Translation
 Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as
far as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP
address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus).
NAT: Network Address Translation
Implementation: NAT router must:



outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port
#) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address,
new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT
IP address, new port #) as destination addr.
remember (in NAT translation table) every (source
IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new
port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram
with corresponding (source IP address, port #)
stored in NAT table
NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router
sends datagram to
changes datagram
128.119.40.186, 80, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345
128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
……
……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001,
S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
2
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001
3: Reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 5001
3
10.0.0.1
1
10.0.0.4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.2
4
10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
NAT: Network Address Translation
(without port translation)
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router
sends datagram to
changes datagram
128.119.40.186, 80, 3345 10.0.0.1, 3345
128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
……
……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 3345,
S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
2
S: 138.76.29.7, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 3345
3: Reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 3345
3
10.0.0.1
1
10.0.0.4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.2
4
10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 3345 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
NAT: Network Address Translation
(without port translation)
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
128.119.40.186, 80, 3345 10.0.0.1, 3345
128.119.40.186, 80, 3345 10.0.0.2, 3345
2
S: 138.76.29.7, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 3345
3
3: Reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 3345????
Source port conflict!
10.0.0.4
1: host 10.0.0.2
sends datagram to
128.119.40.186, 80
S: 10.0.0.2, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
4
10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router
sends datagram to
changes datagram
128.119.40.186, 80, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345
128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
……
……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001,
S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
2
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5002
3: Reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 5001
3
10.0.0.1
1
10.0.0.4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.2
4
10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
128.119.40.186, 80, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345
128.119.40.186, 80, 5002 10.0.0.2, 3345
2
S: 138.76.29.7, 5002
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5002
3: Reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7:5002
3
10.0.0.4
1: host 10.0.0.2
sends datagram to
128.119.40.186, 80
S: 10.0.0.2, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.2
4
10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5002 to 10.0.0.2, 3345
NAT: Network Address Translation
 16-bit port-number field:
 65,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, eg, P2P applications
• The NAT must know about TCP and UDP. What about
other transport protocols?

address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6
NAT traversal problem
 How can skype connect one client to another when
NATs are present?
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
138.76.29.7, 2124
……
192.168.1.23, 3345
……
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
10.0.0.1
Client
NAT 167.6.2.5
router
138.76.29.7
NAT
router
NAT traversal problem
 How can skype connect one client to another when
NATs are present?
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
138.76.29.7, 2124
……
192.168.1.23, 3345
……
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
*: 80
*:? (DMZ)
10.0.0.1: 80
10.0.0.2:?
10.0.0.1
Client
NAT 167.6.2.5
router
138.76.29.7
NAT
router
NAT traversal problem
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
138.76.29.7, 2124
……
192.168.1.23, 3345
……
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
*: 80
*:? (DMZ)
10.0.0.1: 80
10.0.0.1:?
VNC server at
home
10.0.0.1
Client in
the lab
138.76.29.7
138.76.29.7
NAT
Router
192.168.1.1
NAT traversal problem
 How can skype connect one client to another when
NATs are present?
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
138.76.29.7, 2124
……
192.168.1.23, 3345
……
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
10.0.0.1
Client
NAT 167.6.2.5
router
voip
138.76.29.7
NAT
router
NAT traversal problem
 client wants to connect to
server with address 10.0.0.1


server address 10.0.0.1 local
Client
to LAN (client can’t use it as
destination addr)
only one externally visible
NATted address: 138.76.29.7
 solution 1: statically
configure NAT to forward
incoming connection
requests at given port to
server

e.g., (123.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1
port 25000
10.0.0.1
?
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.4
NAT
router
NAT traversal problem
 solution 2: Universal Plug and
Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway
Device (IGD) Protocol. Allows
NATted host to:
 learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
 add/remove port mappings
(with lease times)
i.e., automate static NAT port
map configuration
10.0.0.1
IGD
10.0.0.4
138.76.29.7
NAT
router
NAT traversal problem
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
NATed client establishes connection to relay
 External client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated
by client
Client
3. relaying
established
1. connection to
relay initiated
by NATted host
138.76.29.7
NAT
router
10.0.0.1
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?
 hard-coded by system admin in a file
Windows: control-panel->network->configuration>tcp/ip->properties
 UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
 “plug-and-play”

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address
from network server when it joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected
an “on”)
Support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg
DHCP client-server scenario
A
B
223.1.2.1
DHCP
server
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.3.2
E
arriving DHCP
client needs
address in this
network
DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5
DHCP discover
src : 0.0.0.0, port: 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255, port: 67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, port: 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, port: 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
time
src: 0.0.0.0, port: 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, port: 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, port: 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, port: 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
Lifetime: 3600 secs
arriving
client
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
 used by hosts & routers to
communicate network-level
information
 error reporting:
unreachable host, network,
port, protocol
 echo request/reply (used
by ping)
 network-layer “above” IP:
 ICMP msgs carried in IP
datagrams
 ICMP message: type, code plus
first 8 bytes of IP datagram
causing error
Type
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
Code
0
0
1
2
3
6
7
0
8
9
10
11
12
0
0
0
0
0
description
echo reply (ping)
dest. network unreachable
dest host unreachable
dest protocol unreachable
dest port unreachable
dest network unknown
dest host unknown
source quench (congestion
control - not used)
echo request (ping)
route advertisement
router discovery
TTL expired
bad IP header
Traceroute and ICMP
 Source sends series of
UDP or ICMP segments to
dest



First has TTL =1
Second has TTL=2, etc.
Unlikely port number
 When nth datagram arrives
to nth router:



Router discards datagram
And (might) send to
source an ICMP message
(type 11, code 0)
Message includes name of
router& IP address
 When ICMP message
arrives, source calculates
RTT
 Traceroute does this 3
times
Stopping criterion
 UDP or ICMP segment
eventually arrives at
destination host
 Destination (might) return
ICMP “host unreachable”
packet (type 3, code 3)
 When source gets this
ICMP, stops.
ICMP ping flood

Send many ICMP ping messages to a web server

The server will not be able to respond fast enough, and hence not be able to
provide is primary service

Denial of service attack (DoS)

DDoS (distributed DoS). Many hosts send ICMP ping messages to a web
server

One defense is to filter out messages from hosts that send too many ICMP
messages

So, attackers send ICMP messages, but with a random source address.

Or attackers can send ICMP messages to random hosts but with the source
address of the victim

One defense is to filter all ICMP messages
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
IPv6
 Initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
 Additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 “header changes to facilitate QoS and built-in security”
IPv6 datagram format:
 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed
IPv6 Header (Cont)
Priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow, like TOS in IPv4
Flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.” (concept of“flow” not well defined).
•e.g., all pkts in a VoIP call would have the same flow. Allowing these pkts to be
treated the same (e.g., flow the same path to avoid pkt reordering)
Next header: identify upper layer protocol for data (like protocol number in IPv4)
Payload length is the length of the payload only (slightly different form IPv4 pkt length)
128 bit address permits 5×10^28
addressed for each person on the
planet
Other Changes from IPv4
 Checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
 Fragmentation: removed, but new ICMP messages
to inform the source of the MTU. Also, the source
network layer can fragment messages which are
reassembled at the destination
 Options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “Next Header” field

Fragmentation is supported by a next header
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions
Transition From IPv4 To IPv6
 Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneous
no “flag days”
 How will the network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?

 Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers
Tunneling
Logical view:
Physical view:
E
F
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
A
B
E
F
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
A
B
IPv6
tunnel
IPv4
IPv4
Tunneling
Logical view:
Physical view:
A
B
IPv6
IPv6
A
B
C
IPv6
IPv6
IPv4
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
A-to-B:
IPv6
E
F
IPv6
IPv6
D
E
F
IPv4
IPv6
IPv6
tunnel
Src:B
Dest: E
Src:B
Dest: E
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
data
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
E-to-F:
IPv6
IPv6 Addresses

128 bit addresses



Sample address



::1 or 0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001
http://[2001:0410:4::09C0:7341:A2DF]/index.html


2001:0410:4::09C0:7341:A2DF
Loop back address


2001:0410:0004::09C0:7341:A2DF
But only one :: can be used in each address
If a field has leading zeros, it can be replaced with the non zero part


2001:0410:0004:0000:0000:09C0:7341:A2DF
Often the address has a long string of zeros. These can be replaced with ::


The address space is broken into chunks (as will be explained)
So each address is not really assignable
ugly! I guess we need DNS
::FFFF:128.4.2.10 can allow the IPv4 address to be embedded in a IPv6
address.

However, because of implementation and security issues, not all system support
this
IPv6 broadcast
 IPv4 allows broadcast – where all hosts on the subnet
receive the message


255.255.255.255 is the broadcast address
On the subnet 128.4.2/24, the broadcast address is
128.4.2.255
 IPv6 does not really have broadcast.
 Instead, it has local multicast, where every host in a subnet
gets the message


(well, this seems to be the same thing that IPv4 did. IPv4 does
really let you broadcast over the entire internet)
FF02::1 is the local broadcast address
IPv6 Address Scope
 In IPv6, the address has scope, i.e., the address is
valid in some region
 FE80::/10 is a link local addresses.


These addresses are only used inside a subnet (customer
network)
Routers do not forward these
 FF00::/8 are multicast address (global scope)
 Everything else are global unicast addresses
(global scope)
IPv6 Unicast Addressing
2000::/3 are unicast addresses
112 bits
16 bits
2001::/16 is initially assigned for
unicast addresses
2001
2001
7 bits
Each Regional Internet Registry (RIR) get 7 bit IDs from IANA
Thus, the RIR has a /23 and allocates address from this space
The RIR is responsible for allocating addresses
RIRs: APNIC (asia/pac), ARIN (n. america), LACNIC (S. America), RIPE NCC (europe, middle east, central asia),
AfriNIC (africa)
2001
7 bits 9 bits
RIRs give /32 to ISPs (a /32 has 96 bits available to give to customers… sort of)
With only 9 bits, the RIR will quickly run out of addresses and will ask IANA for another chunk. In total, 2^(7+9) = 65536
ISP chunks can be allocated
(65536 does not seem like a huge number of ISPs
IPv6 Unicast addresses continued
7 bits 9 bits
2001 RIR ISP
This part of the address
identifies the ISP
96 bits of space available to ISP
ISP allocates chunks of this space to customers. The size of the space varies.
Often a customers can get a /64 (giving the customers 64 bits of addresses) and allow an ISP to have 2^32 customers!
Instead of a /64, a customers might get a /48 or /56 (at one time, ISPs were supposed to give /48, but this is not
happening)
7 bits 9 bits
32 bits
2001 RIR ISP
This part of the address
identifies the customer
The ISP address is embedded in the customer address.
•What if the customer has two ISPs (multihomed)?!
•What if the customer moves to another ISP?
•E.g., Udel EECIS has a /16 IPv4 address block. We have had it for a
long time even though we have changed ISP
IPv6 Unicast addresses continued
7 bits 9 bits
2001 RIR ISP
32 bits
customer
This part of the
address identifies the
customer

Three ways to assign 64 bit interface ID



DHCP
Manual
Auto config
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Interface ID
Expand the 48 MAC address to 64 bit
Eg MAC = 00:90:27:17:FC:0F
64 bit MAC = 00:90:27:FF:FE:17:FC:0F
MAC: organizational ID (3 bytes) : interface ID (3 bytes)
~Future MAC: organizational ID (4 bytes) : interface ID (4 bytes), so 00:90:27:FF is like a organizational part
and FE:17:FC:0F is the interface part
Also, of the most significant 8 bits,
– the first bit = 0 => unicast and 1 => multicast
– The second bit = 0 => globally unique MAC address, 1 => locally administered MAC address
Interface ID (aka EUI-64): 02:90:27:FF:FE:17:FC:0F
– The locally administered MAC address bit is set
Once the interface ID is determined, the router can be queried for the upper 64 bits of the address
Supposedly auto config is good enough. But what about when a host has many virtual machines
(VMs) and each needs an address?
IPv6 Interface ID
 The interface ID is the same as the MAC
 Thus, a web site can examine the IPv6 address to determine




your MAC and hence identify the end-host
This is a significant privacy problem
Also, MAC addresses can be guessed (e.g., I know Apple’s
organizational part and can guess the lower 3 bytes. In this
way I can find MACs)
Using random interface IDs solves these problems, but
might also result in address collision
DHCP is another solution

DHCP is needed anyway to set the DNS server
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
datagram networks
 4.3 What’s inside a
router
 4.4 IP: Internet
Protocol




Datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
 4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Hierarchical routing
 4.6 Routing in the
Internet



RIP
OSPF
BGP
 4.7 Broadcast and
multicast routing