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Hub-date 1968 And Cold War events and society (1948-1975) Uprisings Isaac Gluck Cold War Events Michael Smallberg Cold War Era Society Donald Darma 1968: A Year of Uprisings In 1968, various uprisings took place throughout the world mostly by young individuals who sought to challenge the economic, political, and social ideas of the time. Paris, the United States, and Czechoslovakia witnessed these uprisings in 1968. The Paris Uprising • The May Events – On May 2, 1968, the administration at the University of Paris at Nanterre shut down the school after months of conflicts between students and authorities. – The following day, students form Sorbonne University met to protest the closure of the school. – Following the outbreak of the protest, the Sorbonne administration called the police who then surrounded the university and began arresting students who tried leaving campus. – As the students attempted to stop the police vans from taking away the arrested students, the riot police began to throw tear gas into the crowd. The tear gas only brought more students to the scene. • The May Events Continued – On May 6, the UNEF(the national student union) and the union of university teachers called for a march to protest the police invasion at Sorbonne University. – Over 20,000 people marched towards Sorbonne. The police charged as the marchers approached the university. – On May 7, students, teachers, and many young workers gathered at the Arc de Triomphe with three demands: 1) Re-Open Sorbonne University 2) Withdraw the police 3) Release those arrested • May Events Continued – On May 10, another group of about 30,000 students gathered on the Left Bank. They began to put up barricades as they failed to cross the river. – The police then began to attack, causing hundreds of arrests and injuries. – A one day strike and demonstration was called for on May 13. Over a million people marched through Paris on this day. Prime Minister Georges Pompidou then announced the release of the prisoners and the reopening of Sorbonne University. The strikes, however, did not begin to fade. May Events Continued •On May 10, another group of about 30,000 students gathered on the Left Bank. They began to put up barricades as they failed to cross the river. •The police then began to attack, causing hundreds of arrests and injuries. •A one day strike and demonstration was called for on May 13. Over a million people marched through Paris on this day. Prime Minister Georges Pompidou then announced the release of the prisoners and the reopening of Sorbonne University. The strikes, however, did not begin to fade. •By the end of May, ten million people would be on strike. Czechoslovakia in 1968 • Russian Invasion – In 1968, while under Alexander Dubcek (1921-1992), Czechoslovakia began to experiment with a more liberal communism. – Dubcek allowed freedom of discussion and other intellectual rights. – During the summer of 1968, the Soviet Union’s government and its allies from the Warsaw Pact sent troops into Czechoslovakia. They then replaced Dubcek with communist leaders who they favored. – This invasion was the beginning of the end for the Czechoslovakia reform movement known as the Prague Spring. – The invasion of Czechoslovakia showed that any attempt at liberalization would most likely cause Soviet military repression. Uprisings in the United States • Student Protests – On April 23, 1968, Columbia University students began a nonviolent occupation of campus buildings that lasted nearly a week. – Students and community supporters called for the university to cut its ties to research for the war in Vietnam and to end construction of a gym in Morningside Park. – Some students tore down a fence around the gymnasium construction site and battled with police at Morningside Park. Then the protesters marched into Hamilton Hall, occupied its lobby, and prevented the dean of the college from leaving his office. – After negotiations failed, the police were sent in by the administration in order to restore order. The police injured many protesters and arrested about 700 of them. • Student Protests Continued – Although the building occupation was over, the protest was just beginning. Thousands of faculty and students went on strike, shutting down the university for the rest of the semester. – After the Columbia protest, campuses around the world began to protest as well. Other Uprisings Throughout Europe • After youth protests erupted in Belgrade on the night of July 2, 1968, students from Belgrade University entered a seven-day strike. Police beat the students and banned all public gatherings. Students then gathered at the Faculty of Philosophy, held debates and speeches on the social justice, and handed out copies of the banned magazine Student. These students also protested against economic reforms that led to high unemployment and forced workers to leave the country and find work elsewhere. • In Poland in March 1968, student demonstrations at Warsaw University broke out when the government banned the performance of a play by Adam Mickiewicz at the Polish Theatre in Warsaw because it contained "anti-Soviet references". Major Events of the Cold War/Cold War Era (1948-1975) • • • • • • • • Divided Germany/Europe Israel Algeria French Involvement in Vietnam Korean War Cuba Vietnam War United States and Russia Divided Germany/ Europe • 1945 Potsdam conference splits Germany into four • 1947 Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan of military and economic aid to contain communism. • 1948-1949 Berlin blockade and airlift, Stalin overextends reach • 1949 Federal Republic of Germany, BRD, (West) and German Democratic Republic, DDR, (East) formed • Treaty of Brussels, link Benelux countries with France and Britain, Canada, BRD, and United States join, make North Atlantic Treaty Organization in Western Europe (1949) • Soviets make Warsaw Pact (1955), DDR and Eastern Europe. • 1961 To step emigration to Western Europe, the Soviets make the Berlin Wall, keeping Easterners in. • Austria remains independent and neutral from either side. • 1968 Brezhnev Doctrine of military intervention in Eastern Bloc Israel and the Middle East (1948-1973) • Preconditions: Holocaust makes refuge problem for European Jews and makes people sympathetic to Zionism. • Who: Israel vs. its neighbors (Egypt, Jordan, Syria, etc.) • Why: Muslims resented displacement from Jews • What: War of Independence 1948, Israel secures itself. 1956 Sinai War, Israel, Britain, France fail to capture Suez Canal US/USSR force pullback, show who control the world. 1967 Six Day War, Israel captures Sinai, Golan Heights, West Bank 1968-1970 War of Attrition, minor armed conflict, no border change 1973 Yom Kippur War, initial losses, tide turns, no border change • Effects: Arab nations still resentful of Israel, conflicts still occur US backed/backs Israel, USSR backed Arabs to counter US Algerian Independence (1945-1962) • Preconditions: French capture Algeria in 1830, colonial copy of France, 1918 20% of people pieds noirs, French in control • Who: French Fourth Republic vs. National Liberation Front • Why: Algerians second class citizens, limited voting rights • What: May 1945 deadly fights in Setif; French Bloody Sunday 1947 French reforms for Muslims, limited, ineffective 1954 FLN starts guerilla combat, civil war grips Algeria July 3, 1962 independence granted to Algeria • Effects: War split French population; OAS coup, fails to extend war, attempts of Charles de Gaulle’s life Thousands of Muslims flee to France, others killed Vietnamese Independence (1945-1954) • Preconditions: French captured Vietnam by 1893. 1930 Ho Chi Minh turns communist, 1940’s fights off Japanese and Vichy • Who: French vs. Viet Minh (nationalist and communist group) • Why: French shamed after Algeria, Vietnamese want independence • What: September 1945 Minh declares independence, 1947 war 1949 US supports French to stem communism after China’s Communist Revolution, and to gain French NATO support 1954 French loose battle of Dien Bien Phu, withdraw 1956 unification election fails, Vietnam split, on 17th parallel • Effects:1954 US makes SEATO, support Ngo Dinh Diem 1960 National Liberation Front committed to overthrowing Diem, armed wing Viet Cong Korean War (1950-1953) • Preconditions: Between 1910-1945 the Japanese occupied Korea, by 1948 the country was split along the 38th parallel • Who: UN (mainly US), South Korea vs. North, China, USSR • Why: The US wanted to contain the communist North Korea • What: 1950 North Korea invades the South, US then UN intervene September 1950, UN counterattacks, push Koreans up to China November 1950, Chinese send forces to push UN back June 1953 Armistice, war essentially (but not technically) ends • Effects: US views containment as viable policy Soviet indirectly helped North with money, advisors, and weapons Two Koreas, with tensions that still exist Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) • Preconditions: 1957 Fidel Castro overthrows Flugencio Batista and establishes Communist government; 1961 Failed Bay of Pigs invasion, reconnaissance flights over Cuba • Who: United States vs. Cuba and Soviet Union • What: October 14 a U-2 spots missile equipment in Cuba October 22 US Navy blockades Cuba, an act of war, technically October 25 US shows pictures of missile sites to UN, DEFCON 2 declared, putting US nuclear armed bases on 15 minute alert October 26 negotiation begins, 28th crisis over, • Effects: Missiles withdrawn from Cuba by USSR and Turkey and Italy by US, surface weapons testing banned Closest to nuclear war in history (DEFCON 1 highest alert level) US generals disappointed over lack of ground invasion Cuban-Soviet relations frayed, Castro feels betrayed Vietnam War (1964-1973) • Preconditions: After the French left, the United States provided minor military support to South Vietnam, in a “police action” • Who: US, South Vietnam vs. North Vietnam and the Vietcong • Why: The Domino Theory called for containment • What: 1964 the Gulf on Tonkin “incident” lead to escalation 1965 Ground war begins with Marines deployed to protect the USAF 1965-1968 Operation Rolling Thunder, sustained bombing of Vietnam 1968 Tết Offensive, tactical victory, but strategic loss for US 1969-1970 Operation Menu, secret bombing of Laos and Cambodia 1969-1975 Vietnamization, turning security over to Vietnamese forces 1973 Paris Peace Accords, US withdraws from Vietnam • Effects : April 30, 1975 fall of Saigon to Communist forces US looses prestige, government looses public support, first defeat “Domino Theory” holds true, Communists kill millions in Cambodia Vietnamese suffer, “re-educated”, millions of “Boat People” flee The United States and Soviet Union Arms races: 1951 First American Thermonuclear bomb, Soviet 1953 1957 First Soviet ICMB, 1959 First American 1954 First American nuclear powered submarine, 1957 Soviet 1947 Soviet swept wing jet fighter, American 1949 Nuclear warheads in 1970: US 4500, USSR, 850; 1972 5800, 2100 Space Race: Soviets: 1957 First satellite, 1961 First man in orbit, 1965 First Space walk. Americans: First men to leave Earth’s orbit 1968, Moon landing 1969 Events: 1960 a U-2 spy plane is shot down over the Soviet Union embarrassing Eisenhower and the US, (after which the US built better spy planes and spy satellites) After 1963 relations cooled with a surface test ban treaty 1974 and 1979 Strategic Arms Limitation treaties I and II F-86 Sabre and MiG-15 First swept wing fighters Ivy Mike, first ThermoNuclear Weapon Apollo 8 First men to leave Earth’s Orbit Cold War Society The New Population • Directly after the war, many ethnic minorities were displaced, main due to Hitler’s plans. • Decolonization led to thousands of immigrants into Europe, both of European and of colonial decent. • As a result of decolonization and a labor shortage, by the 1960’s, there was a sizable Muslim population in Europe. Feminism • Starting after World War II, women began experiencing an increase in controlling their own lives. • There was a grown presence of married women in the workforce. • Women also began to organize their lives according to childbearing. Existentialism • Existentialism became the “philosophy of Europe in the twentieth century.” • It was however divided by philosophers because of conflicting ideals. • It has also been called a continuation of the revolt against reason. • Major writers include Martin Heidegger, Karl Jasers, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus. • Their books were often obscure and difficult to understand. • Their main goal was to question how reason, technology, and politics caused war and genocide. Environmentalism • Beginning in the 1970’s, environmentalism began to realize the effect of industry on planet. • The Arab oil embargo of 1973-74 brought about the realization that natural resources were limited and could be controlled by hostile countries. • As a response, radical students formed the German Green Movement. • The German Greens became a political force that addressed the issues of global warming, and the pollution of water and air. Art • Two different forms of art existed after World War II: Socialist realism and abstract art. • The proponents of each were Tatjiana Yablonskaya and Jackson Pollock respectively. • Yablonskaya’s Bread is one of Stalin’s portrayals of a prosperous socialist future. • Pollock’s One implies the American cultural freedom. • Art also took in the form of memorials specifically the Nameless Library by Rachel Whiteread to commemorate the 65,000 Austrian Jews who died under the Nazi regime. Christianity • Postwar Roman Catholicism saw many changes brought upon by Pope John XXIII. • He summoned the 21st Ecumenical Council in 1959 and finished their work in 1965 under Pope Paul VI. • Their work has been compared to that of the Council of Trent. • The reforms they introduced were: – Mass in the vernacular – Encouraged freer relations with other Christian denomination – Fostered a new spirit toward Judaism – Gave bishops more power Computers • The development of computers began in the United States as a way to perform precise mathematic ballistic calculations for new weapons. • The first computer was called Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) in 1946. • The 1950’s saw the development of transistors, making large, bulky vacuum tubes obsolete and allowed for small computers. • The 1960’s saw the invention of the mouse (1964) and the microchip. • This made the computer more user-friendly. European Union • The first resemblance of the EU was the 1951 European Coal and Steel Community which had France, West Germany, Italy, and the Benelux countries of Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. • The failure of the Suez Intervention of 1956 caused these 6 nations to create the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 through the Treaty of Rome. • These members of the Common Market pursued a goal of free trade. • In 1968, all tariffs between the 6 original members had been abolished. • Britain formed the European Free Trade area with Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Austria, and Switzerland in 1959. • By 1961, Britain wanted to join the Common Market but was not accepted until 1973 along with Ireland and Denmark. • Eventually the EEC was renamed to the European Union.