Download Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight Fourth Edition

Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones
Chapter 0
Chemical Principles:
The Quest for Insight
Fourth Edition
Fundamentals (Part I) A and B
Organzied by Tarzan, FTS(方泰山教授)
Copyright © 2008 by W. H. Freeman & Company
Ed. By Tai-Shan Fang
Introduction and Orientation
Discipline, Center of Science: 2 Directions
1. Physics: Atoms and Molecules
Chemistry
2. Biology: Life
Chemistry , Technology and Society:
Fig.1 Stone Age (Minerals)→ Bronze Age (Cu + Sn) → Iron Age (Fe)
4 Bronze swords date from 1250 to 850 BCE
A collection in Naturhistoricsches Museum, Vienna
Liptau-type sword
a tongue-shaped sword
an antenna-type sword
a short sword
Fig.2. Nature Science
Cold weather triggers
chemical processes that
reduce the amount of the gree
chlorophyll in leaves,
aoolwing the colors of
various other
Pigments to show.
Fig.3.
When magnsium burns in air,
it gives off a lot of heat and light.
The gray-white powdery product
looks like smoke.
Fig.4.
Chemistry: A Science at Three Levels
Fig.5
How Science Is Done
Fig.6. A summary of the principal activities that
constitute a common version of the scientific mehtod.
At each stage, the crucial activity is
experiment and its comparison with
the idea proposed.
Fig.7. Scientific research today
often requires sophisticated
equipment and computers. This
chemist is using an Auger electron
spectrrometer to probe the surface of
a crystal. The data collected will
allow the chemist to determine
which elecments are present in the
surface
(The Branches of )Chemistry
Organic..
Molecular Biology
Material Science
Inorganic..
Nanotechnology
Analytical..
…….
Sustainable…
Physical..
Environmental..
Practical (Experimental)..
Green Chemisty
----------Bio (logical)..
Medicinal..
How to Master Chemistry?
Computational..
Theoretical..
Mastering Chemistry(Bases)
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
Matter and Energy
Elements and Atoms
Compounds
The Nomenclature of Compounds
Moles and Molar Masses
Moles and Molar Masses
Determination of Chemical Formulas
Mixtures and Solutions
Chemical Equations
Aqueous Solutions and Precipitation
Redox Reactions
Reaction Stoichiometry
Limiting Reactants
A. Matter and Energy (Physical Change: Pure Substance)
Solid phase
Liquid phase
Gas phase
Fig.A.1. A molecule representation of the three states of matter.
In each case, the spsheres represent particles that may be atoms,
molecules or ions
Solution: Homogeneous Mixture
Extensive (V, M,) vs. Intensive (T, P)
For example: PV=nRT
Fig.A.2
Mass is an extensive property,
but temperature is intensive.
These two samples of iron(II) sulfate
solution were taken from the same
well-mixed supply; they have
different masses but the same
temperature.
Fig.A.3 精 and 準
A Representation of
Measurements that
are
(a) Precise and
Accurate
(b) Precise but
Inaccurate
(c) Imprecise but
Accurate
(d) Both Imprecise
and Inaccurate
Example A.1: Converting Unit
1,7 qt = ? L
0.94635251 L
0.94635251 L
1.6 L
1,7 qt
1 qt
1 qt
0.94635251 L
Conversion factor (Appendix 1 B) =
1 qt
Example A.2: Calculating the volume of a sample
5.0 g silver solid = ? cm
3
-3
/ / / 10.50 g
Solution: V= m / V = 5.0g
/ ‧cm
/
3
=0.48 cm
Force and Work
Fig.A.4
When a force acts along the direction of travel, the speed (the magnitude of the
velocity) changes, but the direction of motion does not. (b) The direction of travel can be changed
Without affecting the speed if the force is applied in an appropriate direction. Both changes in
velocity correspond to acceleration.
Chemical Change and Energy:
Fig.A.5
When bromine is poured
on red phosphorus, a chemical
change takes place in which a lot
of energy is released
as heat and light.
Fig.A.6 The energy required
To raise the book that you are
now reading from floor to
tabletop is approximately 14 J.
The same energy would be
released if the book fell fro
tabletop to floor.
Fig.A.7 The potential energy
of a mass m n a gravitational
field is proportional to its
height h above a point (the
floor), which is taken to the
correspond to zero potential
energy.
Example A.3: Calculating Kinetic Energy
How much energy does it take to accelerate a person and a bicycle of total 1mass 75 kg to 20 mph (8.9 m . s -1), starting from rest and ignoring friction
and wind resistance?
-1 2
Solution: Ek = ½ mv 2 = ½ (75 kg) x ( 8.9 m . S )
= 3.0 kJ
Example A.4: Calculating the Gravitational Potential Energy
Someone of mass 65 kg walks up a flight of stairs between two floors of a
building that are separated by 3.0 m. What is the change in potential energy
of the person?
Solution: Ep = mgh
-2
= (65 kg) x (9.81 m . S ) x (3.0 m)
= 1.9 kJ
Fig.A.8 the variation of the Coulomb
potential energy of two opposite charge
(one represented by the red circle,
the other by the green circle) with
their separation . Notice that the
potential energy decreases as the charge
approach each other.
Fig.A.9
An electromagnetic field
oscillates in time and space.
The magnetic field is
perpendicular to the electric
field . The length of an arrow at
any point represents the
strength of the field at that
point. And it orientation
denotes its direction . Both
fields are perpendicular in the
direction of travel of the
radiation.
Fig.A.10
Kinetic energy
(represented by the height
of the light green bar) are
interconvertable, but their
sum ( the total height of
the bar) is a constant in the
absence of external
influences, such as air
resistance. A ball through up
from ground loses kinetic
energy as it slows, but gains
potential energy. The reverse
happens as it falls back to
Earth.
B. Elements and Atoms
Fig.B.1
Samples of
common elements.
Clockwise from the
Red-brown liquid
Mercury and the
Solids iodine,
Cadmium,
Red phosphorus,
and copper
B.1 Atoms
Fig.B.2
John Dalton (17661844), the English
schoolteacher who use
experimental
measurements to
argue that matter
consists of atoms.
The atoms of an
element are not all
exactly the same,
because they can
differ slightly in mass.
(B.3 isotopes)
Fig.B.3 Individual atoms can be seen as bumps on the surface of a solid by
the technique called scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). This is of silicon.
B.2 The Nuclear Model
will discuss in Chater 1
(Fig.1.1 Joseph John Thomson(1856~1949), With the apparatus that he used
to discover the electron)
(Fig.1.2 The apparatus used by Thomson to investigate the properties of electrons.
An electric field is set up between the two plates and a magnetic field is applied
Perpendicular to the electric field.)
(P.2 ) Fig.1.3 A schematic
diagram of Milikan’s oil-drop
Experiment. Oil is sprayed as
a fine mist into a chamber
containing a charged gas, and
the location of an oil droplet
is monitored by suing a
microscope. Charged
particles (ions) are generated
in the gas by exposing it to xray. The fall of the charged
droplet is balanced by the
electric field.
P.4 Fig.1.4
Ernest Rutherford
(1871~ 1937), who
was responsible for
many discoveries
about the structure of
the atom and its
nucleus.
P.3 Fig.1.1
Part of the experimental arrangement used by Geiger and Marsden.
The α particles came from a sample of the radioactive gas radon. They were
directed through a hole into a cylindrical chamber with a zinc sulfide coating on the
inside. The α particles struck the platinum foil mounted inside the cylinder, and
their deflections were measured by observing flashes of light (scintillations) where
they struck the screen. About 1 in 20000 α particles was deflected through very
large angles; most went through the thin foil with almost no deflection.
Fig.B.4
Think of a fly at the center of this
stadium: that is the relative size of the
Nucleus of an atom if the atom were
magnified to the size of the stadium.
微粒(腦力子的波動性質
2004諾貝爾物理獎 :發現夸克漸近自由 美三學
者共獲殊榮(David J. Gross (UC,Santa Barbara), Frank
Wilczek(MIT) and H. David Politzer(CIT))
• 一九七二年，年方卅一歲的普林斯頓大學教授葛羅斯決定
要以數學方法挑戰這個難題，他找來正在攻讀博士學位的
研究生威爾切克，師徒兩人從「楊－密爾斯規範場論」著
手，經過一番抽絲剝繭的仔細計算，終於發現夸克獨樹一
格的「漸近自由」性質。另一方面，當時在哈佛大學攻讀
博士的波利徹也藉由類似的方法，獲致相同的成果。
•
根據葛羅斯三人的理論，當夸克(quirk)越靠近，彼此的
作用力越小，行逕類似自由粒子；然而當夸克彼此越遠
離，交互作用就越強大，反而會綁在一起，無法成為自由
粒子，形成所謂的「夸克幽禁」現象，夸克永遠是三個一
組以質子或中子的形態存在。” for the discovery of
asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction"
The Standard Model and the four forces of Nature
B.3 Isotopes
Fig.B.5 A mass spectrometer is used to measure the masses of atoms
As the strength of the magnetic field is changed, the path of the
accelerated ions moves from A to C. When the path is at B, the ion
Detector sends a signal to the recorder The mass of the ion is proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field needed to move the beam into position.
Fig.B.6
The mass spectrum of neon
The location of the peaks tell
us the relative asses of the atoms,
and the te nsties tel us the relative
numbers of atoms having
each mass.
Fig.B.7 The nuclei o different isotopes of the same
element hve the same number of protons but different
numbe of neutrons. These three diagrams show the
composition of the nuclei of the three isotpes of neon.
On this scale, the atom itself would be about 1 km in
diameter These diagrams make no attempt to show
how the protons and neutrons are arranged inside the
nucleus.
B.4 The Organization of the Elements
Fig.B.8
The structure of the periodic table, showing the names of some regions and
groups. The groups are the vertical colums, numered 1 through 18 The periods are the
horizontal rows, numbered 1 through 7(period 1 is the to row hydrogen and helium –
and is ot numbered n the figure) The main-group elements are those in Groups 1,2,and
13 through 18, together with hydrogen. Some versions of the table use different
notations for groups, as in Groups III through VIII shown here We use both notations
for Groups 13 through 18.
Fig.B.9
The alkali metals eact with
water, producing gaseous
hydrogen and heat.
Potassium, as shown here,
reacts vigorously,
producing so much heat that
the hydrogen produced is
ignited.
Fig.B.10
The halogens are colored
elements.
From left to right, chlorine is a
yellow-green gas, bromine is a
red-brown iquid (its vapor fills
the flask), and iodine is a dark
purple-black solid (note the smal
crystals)
Fig.B.11
All metals can be deformed
by hammering into a shet so
thin that light can pass
through it. Here, it is possible
to see the light of a flame
through the sheet of gold.
Fig.B.12 The locatin of the seven elements commonly regarded as metalloid :
these elements have characterstic of both metals and nonmetas. Other elements,
notably beryllium and bismuth, are sometines included in the classificantion.
Boron (B), although not resembling a metal in appearance, is included because
it resembles silicon (Si) chemically.
C. Compounds
Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones
Chapter 0
Chemical Principles:
The Quest for Insight
Fourth Edition
Fundamentals (Part II):C,D,E and F
Copyright © 2008 by W. H. Freeman & Company
Ed. By Tai-Shan Fang
C. Compounds
C.1 What are compounds ?
Compounds are combinations of
elements in which the atoms of
the different elements are present
in a characteristic, constant ratio.
A compound is classified as
molecular if it consists of
molecules and as ionic if it
consists of ionic if it consists of
ions.
C.2 Molecules and Molecular compounds
Figure C.2 Representative of an ethanol
molecule : (a) space-filling,
(b) ball-and-stick
Other kinds of images to depict molecular structure
The tube structure
Density isosurface
The tube structure and Density isosurface
Electrostatic potential
isosurface “Elpot” surface: redtint (high,-) --- blue-tint(low, +)
A molecular formula shows the composition of a molecule in terms of
the numbers of atoms of each element present. Different styles of molecular
models are used to emphasize different molecular characteristics
C.3 Ions and Ionic compounds
Metallic elements typically form cations, and nonmetallic elements typically
form anions; the charge of a monatomic ion is related to its group in the
periodic table
D. The Nomenclature of Compounds
D.1 Names of Cations :
The name of a monatomic cation is the name of the
Elements that can form more than one type of cation, the oxidation number,
A Roman numeral indicating the charge, is included.
D.2 Names of Anions:
Names of monatomic anions end in –ide. Oxoanions are anions that contains
oxygen. The suffix –ate indicates a greater number of oxygen atoms than the
Suffixe –ite in the same series of oxoanions.
D.3 Names of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are named by starting
with the name of the cation (with its
oxidation number if more than one charge
is possible). Followed by the name of the
anion; hydrates are named by adding the
word hydrate, preceded by a Greek prefix
indicating the number of water molecules
in the formula unit.
D.4 Names of Inorganic Molecular Compounds
D.5 Names of Some Common Organic Compounds
E. Moles and
Molar Masses
E1. The Mole
E.2. Molar Mass (M)
F Determination of Chemical formula
Figure F.1 The research
vessel Alpha Helix is
used by chemists at the
University Of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign to
search for marine
organisms that contain
compounds of medicinal
value. Compounds found
to have antifungal or
antiviral properties are
then subject to the kinds
of analyses described in
this section
F.1 F.1 Mass Percentage Composition (%)
F.2 Determining Empirical Formulas
F.3 Determining Molecular Formulas
G Mixture and Solutions
Peter Atkins and Loretta Jones
Chapter 0
Chemical Principles:
The Quest for Insight
Fourth Edition
Fundamentals (Part III) G to M
Copyright © 2008 by W. H. Freeman & Company
Ed. By Tai-Shan Fang
G Mixture and Solutions
G.1
Classifying Mixture
G.2 Separation Techniques
G.3. Molarity (M)
H. Chemical Equations
H.1. Symbolizing
Chemical Equations
H.2 Balancing
Chemical Equations
I. Aqueous Solutions
and Precipitation
I.1 Electrolytes
I.2 Precipitation Reaction
(a)
I.3 Ionic and Net Ionic Reaction
(b)
I.4 Putting Precipitation
to work
J. Acids and Bases : J.1 Acids and bases in Aqueous Solution
J.2 Strong and Weak
acids and Bases
Arrhenius acids H + and bases (OH--)
BrØnsted-LØwry
J.3
Neutralization
K. Redox Reaction
K.1 Oxidation and Reduction
K.2 Oxidation and Reduction: keeping Track of Electrons
K.3 Oxiditizing and
Reducing Agents
K.4 Balancing Simple Bedox Equation
L. Reaction Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
L.1 :Stoichiometry: Mole- to –Mole Predictions
L.2 :Stoichiometry: Mass- to –Mass Predictions
L.3 :Volumetric Analysis
Example L.2
Sample exercise: Determining the molarity of an oxalic acid by titration
M1 Reaction yield
M2 The Limits of Reaction
M3 Combustion Analysis