Download History of Western drama

Drama
Drama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in
performance.[1] The term comes from a Greek word meaning
"action" (Classical Greek: δρᾶμα, drama), which is derived from
"to do" (Classical Greek: δράω, drao). The enactment of drama in
theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience,
presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective
form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other
forms of literature, is directly influenced by this collaborative
production and collective reception.[2] The early modern tragedy
Hamlet (1601) by Shakespeare and the classical Athenian tragedy
Oedipus the King (c. 429 BCE) by Sophocles are among the
masterpieces of the art of drama.[3] A modern example is Long Day's Journey into Night by Eugene O’Neill
(1956).[4]
The two masks associated with drama represent the traditional generic division between comedy and tragedy. They
are symbols of the ancient Greek Muses, Thalia and Melpomene. Thalia was the Muse of comedy (the laughing
face), while Melpomene was the Muse of tragedy (the weeping face). Considered as a genre of poetry in general, the
dramatic mode has been contrasted with the epic and the lyrical modes ever since Aristotle's Poetics (c. 335
BCE)—the earliest work of dramatic theory.[5]
The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific type of play dates from the 19th century. Drama in
this sense refers to a play that is neither a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, Zola's Thérèse Raquin (1873) or
Chekhov's Ivanov (1887). It is this narrow sense that the film and television industry and film studies adopted to
describe "drama" as a genre within their respective media.[6] "Radio drama" has been used in both senses—originally
transmitted in a live performance, it has also been used to describe the more high-brow and serious end of the
dramatic output of radio.[7]
Drama is often combined with music and dance: the drama in opera is generally sung throughout; musicals generally
include both spoken dialogue and songs; and some forms of drama have incidental music or musical accompaniment
underscoring the dialogue (melodrama and Japanese Nō, for example).[8] In certain periods of history (the ancient
Roman and modern Romantic) some dramas have been written to be read rather than performed.[9] In improvisation,
the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before
an audience.[10]
History of Western drama
Classical Athenian drama
Western drama originates in classical Greece.[11] The theatrical culture of the city-state of Athens produced three
genres of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play. Their origins remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE
they were institutionalised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating the god Dionysus.[12] Historians
know the names of many ancient Greek dramatists, not least Thespis, who is credited with the innovation of an actor
("hypokrites") who speaks (rather than sings) and impersonates a character (rather than speaking in his own person),
while interacting with the chorus and its leader ("coryphaeus"), who were a traditional part of the performance of
non-dramatic poetry (dithyrambic, lyric and epic).[13] Only a small fraction of the work of five dramatists, however,
has survived to this day: we have a small number of complete texts by the tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles and
Euripides, and the comic writers Aristophanes and, from the late 4th century, Menander.[14] Aeschylus' historical
1
Drama
tragedy The Persians is the oldest surviving drama, although when it won first prize at the City Dionysia competition
in 472 BCE, he had been writing plays for more than 25 years.[15] The competition ("agon") for tragedies may have
begun as early as 534 BCE; official records ("didaskaliai") begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was
introduced.[16] Tragic dramatists were required to present a tetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not
necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play (though
exceptions were made, as with Euripides' Alcestis in 438 BCE). Comedy was officially recognised with a prize in the
competition from 487 to 486 BCE. Five comic dramatists competed at the City Dionysia (though during the
Peloponnesian War this may have been reduced to three), each offering a single comedy.[17] Ancient Greek comedy
is traditionally divided between "old comedy" (5th century BCE), "middle comedy" (4th century BCE) and "new
comedy" (late 4th century to 2nd BCE).[18]
Roman drama
Following the expansion of the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE) into several Greek territories between 270–240
BCE, Rome encountered Greek drama.[19] From the later years of the republic and by means of the Roman Empire
(27 BCE-476 CE), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and reached England; Roman
theatre was more varied, extensive and sophisticated than that of any culture before it.[20] While Greek drama
continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BCE marks the beginning of regular Roman
drama.[21] From the beginning of the empire, however, interest in full-length drama declined in favour of a broader
variety of theatrical entertainments.[22] The first important works of Roman literature were the tragedies and
comedies that Livius Andronicus wrote from 240 BCE.[23] Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius also began to write
drama.[23] No plays from either writer have survived. While both dramatists composed in both genres, Andronicus
was most appreciated for his tragedies and Naevius for his comedies; their successors tended to specialise in one or
the other, which led to a separation of the subsequent development of each type of drama.[23] By the beginning of the
2nd century BCE, drama was firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers (collegium poetarum) had been
formed.[24] The Roman comedies that have survived are all fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and
come from two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence).[25] In re-working
the Greek originals, the Roman comic dramatists abolished the role of the chorus in dividing the drama into episodes
and introduced musical accompaniment to its dialogue (between one-third of the dialogue in the comedies of Plautus
and two-thirds in those of Terence).[26] The action of all scenes is set in the exterior location of a street and its
complications often follow from eavesdropping.[26] Plautus, the more popular of the two, wrote between 205 and 184
BCE and twenty of his comedies survive, of which his farces are best known; he was admired for the wit of his
dialogue and his use of a variety of poetic meters.[27] All of the six comedies that Terence wrote between 166 and
160 BCE have survived; the complexity of his plots, in which he often combined several Greek originals, was
sometimes denounced, but his double-plots enabled a sophisticated presentation of contrasting human behaviour.[27]
No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early
tragedians—Quintus Ennius, Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius.[26] From the time of the empire, the work of two
tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca.[28] Nine of Seneca's
tragedies survive, all of which are fabula crepidata (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his Phaedra, for
example, was based on Euripides' Hippolytus.[29] Historians do not know who wrote the only extant example of the
fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects), Octavia, but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to
Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy.[28]
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Drama
Medieval
In the Middle Ages, drama in the vernacular languages of Europe may have emerged from religious enactments of
the liturgy. Mystery plays were presented on the porch of the cathedrals or by strolling players on feast days. Miracle
and mystery plays, along with moralities and interludes, later evolved into more elaborate forms of drama, such as
was seen on the Elizabethan stages.
Elizabethan and Jacobean
One of the great flowerings of drama in England occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these plays were
written in verse, particularly iambic pentameter. In addition to Shakespeare, such authors as Christopher Marlowe,
Thomas Middleton, and Ben Jonson were prominent playwrights during this period. As in the medieval period,
historical plays celebrated the lives of past kings, enhancing the image of the Tudor monarchy. Authors of this
period drew some of their storylines from Greek mythology and Roman mythology or from the plays of eminent
Roman playwrights such as Plautus and Terence.
Modern and postmodern
The pivotal and innovative contributions of the 19th-century Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen and the 20th-century
German theatre practitioner Bertolt Brecht dominate modern drama; each inspired a tradition of imitators, which
include many of the greatest playwrights of the modern era.[30] The works of both playwrights are, in their different
ways, both modernist and realist, incorporating formal experimentation, meta-theatricality, and social critique.[31] In
terms of the traditional theoretical discourse of genre, Ibsen's work has been described as the culmination of "liberal
tragedy", while Brecht's has been aligned with an historicised comedy.[32]
Other important playwrights of the modern era include August Strindberg, Anton Chekhov, Frank Wedekind,
Maurice Maeterlinck, Federico García Lorca, Eugene O'Neill, Luigi Pirandello, George Bernard Shaw, Ernst Toller,
Vladimir Mayakovsky, Arthur Miller, Tennessee Williams, Jean Genet, Eugène Ionesco, Samuel Beckett, Harold
Pinter, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Dario Fo, Heiner Müller, and Caryl Churchill.
Asian drama
India
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Drama
The earliest form of Indian drama was the
Sanskrit drama.[33] It began after the
development of Greek and Roman drama
and before the development of theatre in
other parts of Asia.[34] It emerged
sometime between the 2nd century BCE
and the 1st century CE and flourished
between the 1st century CE and the 10th,
which was a period of relative peace in the
history of India during which hundreds of
plays were written.[35] With the Islamic
conquests that began in the 10th and 11th
centuries, theatre was discouraged or
forbidden entirely.[36] Later, in an attempt
to re-assert indigenous values and ideas,
village theatre was encouraged across the
Performer playing Sugriva in the Koodiyattam form of Sanskrit theatre.
subcontinent, developing in a large number
of regional languages from the 15th to the
19th centuries.[37] Modern Indian theatre developed during the period of colonial rule under the British Empire, from
the mid-19th century until the mid-20th.[38]
Sanskrit theatre
The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century CE.[39] The wealth of archeological
evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.[40] The ancient Vedas
(hymns from between 1500 to 1000 BCE that are among the earliest examples of literature in the world) contain no
hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form of dialogue) and the rituals of the Vedic period do not
appear to have developed into theatre.[41] The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may
have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.[42] This treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the
beginnings of theatre in India.[43]
The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date
of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata
Muni. The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music,
dramatic construction, architecture, costuming, make-up, props, the organisation of companies, the audience,
competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre.[44]
Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature.[45] It utilised stock characters, such as the
hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. It was
patronized by the kings as well as village assemblies. Famous early playwrights include Bhasa, Kalidasa (famous for
Vikrama and Urvashi, Malavika and Agnimitra, and The Recognition of Shakuntala), Śudraka (famous for The Little
Clay Cart), Asvaghosa, Daṇḍin, and Emperor Harsha (famous for Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika).
Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808–1832).[46]
4
Drama
Modern Indian drama
Rabindranath Tagore, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, is probably India's best-known
modern playwright.[47] His plays are written in Bengali and include Chitra (Chitrangada, 1892), The King of the
Dark Chamber (Raja, 1910), The Post Office (Dakghar, 1913), and Red Oleander (Raktakarabi, 1924).[48]
China
Chinese theatre has a long and complex history. Today it is often called Chinese opera although this normally refers
specifically to the popular form known as Beijing Opera and Kunqu; there have been many other forms of theatre in
China.
Japan
Japanese Nō drama is a serious dramatic form that combines drama, music, and dance into a complete aesthetic
performance experience. It developed in the 14th and 15th centuries and has its own musical instruments and
performance techniques, which were often handed down from father to son. The performers were generally male (for
both male and female roles), although female amateurs also perform Nō dramas. Nō drama was supported by the
government, and particularly the military, with many military commanders having their own troupes and sometimes
performing themselves. It is still performed in Japan today.[49]
Kyōgen is the comic counterpart to Nō drama. It concentrates more on dialogue and less on music, although Nō
instrumentalists sometimes appear also in Kyōgen. Kabuki drama, developed from the 17th century, is another comic
form, which includes dance.
Forms of drama
Opera
Western opera is a dramatic art form, which arose during the Renaissance in an attempt to revive the classical Greek
drama tradition in which both music and theatre were combined. Being strongly intertwined with western classical
music, the opera has undergone enormous changes in the past four centuries and it is an important form of theatre
until this day. Noteworthy is the huge influence of the German 19th century composer Richard Wagner on the opera
tradition. In his view, there was no proper balance between music and theatre in the operas of his time, because the
music seemed to be more important than the dramatic aspects in these works. To restore the connection with the
traditional Greek drama, he entirely renewed the operatic format, and to emphasize the equal importance of music
and drama in these new works, he called them "music dramas".
Chinese opera has seen a more conservative development over a somewhat longer period of time.
Pantomime
These stories follow in the tradition of fables and folk tales, usually there is a lesson learned, and with some help
from the audience the hero/heroine saves the day. This kind of play uses stock characters seen in masque and again
commedia dell'arte, these characters include the villain (doctore), the clown/servant (Arlechino/Harlequin/buttons),
the lovers etc. These plays usually have an emphasis on moral dilemmas, and good always triumphs over evil, this
kind of play is also very entertaining making it a very effective way of reaching many people.
5
Drama
6
Creative drama
Creative drama includes dramatic activities and games used primarily in educational settings with children. Its roots
in the United States began in the early 1900s. Winifred Ward is considered to be the founder of creative drama in
education, establishing the first academic use of drama in Evanston, Illinois .
Legal status
UK
The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 does not define a dramatic work except to state that it includes a work
of dance or mime. However, it is clear that dramatic work includes the scenario or script for films, plays (written for
theatre, cinema, television or radio).[50] and choreographic works.[51]
Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Elam (1980, 98).
Pfister (1977, 11).
Fergusson (1949, 2–3).
Burt, Daniel S. The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time (2008) Facts on File ISBN 978-0-8160-6073-3
[5] Francis Fergusson writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a lyric, is not primarily a composition in the verbal medium; the words result,
as one might put it, from the underlying structure of incident and character. As Aristotle remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of
plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imiates, and what he imitates are actions'" (1949, 8).
[6] See also Wikipedia's List of drama films.
[7] Banham (1998, 894–900).
[8] See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in Banham (1998).
[9] While there is some dispute among theatre historians, it is probable that the plays by the Roman Seneca were not intended to be performed.
Manfred by Byron is a good example of a "dramatic poem." See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in Banham (1998).
[10] Some forms of improvisation, notably the Commedia dell'arte, improvise on the basis of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of scenic action (see
Gordon (1983) and Duchartre (1929)). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their
characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of
improvisation in the theatre originated with Joan Littlewood and Keith Johnstone in the UK and Viola Spolin in the USA; see Johnstone
(1981) and Spolin (1963).
[11] Brown (1998, 441), Cartledge (1997, 3–5), Goldhill (1997, 54), and Ley (2007, 206). Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek'
tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct" (2004, 104). Brown writes that ancient Greek drama "was essentially the creation of
classical Athens: all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of the
Athenian democracy), and all the surviving plays date from this period" (1998, 441). "The dominant culture of Athens in the fifth century",
Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented theatre" (1997, 54).
[12] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13–15) and Banham (1998, 441–447).
[13] Banham (1998, 441–444). For more information on these ancient Greek dramatists, see the articles categorised under "Ancient Greek
dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia.
[14] The theory that Prometheus Bound was not written by Aeschylus would bring this number to six dramatists whose work survives.
[15] Banham (1998, 8) and Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–16).
[16] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 13, 15) and Banham (1998, 442).
[17] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 18) and Banham (1998, 444–445).
[18] Banham (1998, 444–445).
[19] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43).
[20] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 36, 47).
[21] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 43). For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman
dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia.
[22] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 46–47).
[23] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47).
[24] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 47–48).
[25] Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48–49).
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49).
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 48).
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 50).
Brockett and Hildy (2003, 49–50).
Drama
[30] Williams (1993, 25–26) and Moi (2006, 17). Moi writes that "Ibsen is the most important playwright writing after Shakespeare. He is the
founder of modern theater. His plays are world classics, staged on every continent, and studied in classrooms everywhere. In any given year,
there are hundreds of Ibsen productions in the world." Ibsenites include George Bernard Shaw and Arthur Miller; Brechtians include Dario Fo,
Joan Littlewood, W. H. Auden Peter Weiss, Heiner Müller, Peter Hacks, Tony Kushner, Caryl Churchill, John Arden, Howard Brenton,
Edward Bond, and David Hare.
[31] Moi (2006, 1, 23–26). Taxidou writes: "It is probably historically more accurate, although methodologically less satisfactory, to read the
Naturalist movement in the theatre in conjunction with the more anti-illusionist aesthetics of the theatres of the same period. These interlock
and overlap in all sorts of complicated ways, even when they are vehemently denouncing each other (perhaps particularly when) in the
favoured mode of the time, the manifesto" (2007, 58).
[32] Williams (1966) and Wright (1989).
[33] Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
[34] Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
[35] Brandon (1997, 70) and Richmond (1998, 516).
[36] Brandon (1997, 72) and Richmond (1998, 516).
[37] Brandon (1997, 72), Richmond (1998, 516), and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 12).
[38] Richmond (1998, 516) and Richmond, Swann, and Zarrilli (1993, 13).
[39] Brandon (1981, xvii) and Richmond (1998, 516–517).
[40] Richmond (1998, 516).
[41] Richmond (1998, 516).
[42] Richmond (1998, 517).
[43] Richmond (1998, 517).
[44] Richmond (1998, 517).
[45] Brandon (1981, xvii).
[46] Brandon (1981, xvii).
[47] Banham (1998, 1051).
[48] Banham (1998, 1051).
[49] Website reference (http:/ / www. iijnet. or. jp/ NOH-KYOGEN/ english/ english. html)
[50] Green v. Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand [1989]
[51] The fixation of such a work can be in writing "or otherwise" and may accordingly be, for instance, on film. Where a dramatic work is
recorded on a film, the film must contain the whole of the dramatic work in an unmodified state: Norowzian v. Arks [2000] (dance recorded on
film, which was then edited, could not be protected because the film had been drastically edited and was not therefore a recording of the
dance).
Sources
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0521434378.
• Baumer, Rachel Van M., and James R. Brandon, eds. 1981. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1993. ISBN 978-8120807723.
• Brandon, James R. 1981. Introduction. In Baumer and Brandon (1981, xvii–xx).
• ---, ed. 1997. The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre.' 2nd, rev. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN
978-0521588225.
• Brockett, Oscar G. and Franklin J. Hildy. 2003. History of the Theatre. Ninth edition, International edition.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 0205410502.
• Brown, Andrew. 1998. "Ancient Greece." In The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Ed. Martin Banham. Cambridge:
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0486216799.
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7
Drama
• Durant, Will & Ariel Durant. 1963 The Story of Civilization, Volume II: The Life of Greece. 11 vols. New York:
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ISBN 0416720609.
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• Goldhill, Simon. 1997. "The Audience of Athenian Tragedy." In Easterling (1997c, 54–68).
• Gordon, Mel. 1983. Lazzi: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte. New York: Performing Arts Journal
Publications. ISBN 0933826699.
• Harsh, Philip Whaley. 1944. A Handbook of Classical Drama. Stanford: Stanford UP; Oxford: Oxford UP.
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0713687010.
• Ley, Graham. 2006. A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theater. Rev. ed. Chicago and London: U of
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ISBN 0226477576.
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Literature Ser. Cambridige: Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 052142383X.
• Rehm, Rush. 1992. Greek Tragic Theatre. Theatre Production Studies ser. London and New York: Routledge.
ISBN 0415118948.
• Richmond, Farley. 1998. "India." In Banham (1998, 516–525).
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Performance. U of Hawaii P. ISBN 978-0824813222.
• Spolin, Viola. 1967. Improvisation for the Theater. Third rev. ed Evanston, Il.: Northwestern University Press,
1999. ISBN 081014008X.
• Taxidou, Olga. 2004. Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP. ISBN 0748619879.
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Helen Higbee and William West. Cambridge Studies in Renaissance Literature and Culture. Cambridge:
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External links
• Greek & Roman Mask Timeline (http://www.arlymasks.com/timeline.htm)
8
Article Sources and Contributors
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