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U.S. Foreign Policy: 1775-1811 Here is my first principle of foreign policy: good government at home. -William E. Gladstone Main Ideas • Early examples of foreign policy during the American Revolution and under the Articles of Confederation • Foreign policies of Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison • The power of “recognition” in foreign diplomacy Becoming a Nation The movement for an independent foreign policy reached its climax with the convocation of the Second Continental Congress in the summer of 1775. • Ben Franklin wanted the Congress to have power to make war and peace. • John Adams called for construction of an American navy. • Others wanted to open American ports to foreign trade. Becoming a Nation continued… • The Declaration of Independence would be the first document of American foreign policy. It described the United States’ relationship with Great Britain. • To make up for their comparative weakness in the war, Americans sought aid from other nations. • The nation’s first treaty would be concluded in 1778: The FrancoAmerican (Alliance) Treaty of 1778. A separate trade treaty with France was also signed. Becoming a Nation continued… • The nation’s third treaty was the Treaty of Paris of 1783, concluding the war with Great Britain. In this treaty, the British recognized United States independence. • The weak central government created by the Articles of Confederation made negotiation of treaties difficult. • The Constitution which went into effect in 1789 gave the president and Congress important powers to deal with foreign affairs (see Article I Section 8 and Article II Sections 2 and 4). Recognition • A nation recognizes another nation when it acknowledges another nation’s independence. A nation that recognizes another nation enters into formal relations with it. Usually each of the nations sends an official representative to the other. • It is very difficult for a new nation to survive without the official recognition of powerful nations. Without recognition, it cannot make alliances, trade agreements, or agreements for economic aid. When one powerful nation recognizes a new nation, others usually follow. • These considerations also apply when a government changes its form of government, as happens during a revolution. The new government needs to obtain recognition by other nations. Foreign Policy Under Washington Washington faced problems: • U.S. weak militarily • U.S. geographically separated from Europe (need a navy) • Great Britain and France are enemies • U.S. needed to establish foreign trade • U.S. needed to remove British troops from area near the Great Lakes • U.S. needed to settle financial problems with other nations (war debt) Dealing with France The French Revolution 1789– 1799, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France that had a major impact on France and throughout the rest of Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years. • Public opinion was divided on the issue of the French Revolution. • When war broke out between Great Britain and France in 1793, the new French government expected American aid. • Direct aid to France would mean war with Great Britain, which the U.S. could ill afford (weak military, ¾ of trade was with Britain, tariffs were main source of government revenue). • Proclamation of Neutrality was issued in 1793. (“self-interest is the basic cement of alliances”) • Citizen Genêt (Edmond Genêt) the French minister to U.S. broke from formal diplomacy and appealed directly to American public. This outraged Washingtoncalling for his removal • The U.S. did recognize the new French government. Dealing with Great Britain Problems: * Britain seizing American ships headed for French ports * British still occupying forts near the Great Lakes Under Jay's Treaty, the British agreed to leave areas in the Northwest Territory which they had been required to return earlier, under the Treaty of Paris. This treaty did not, however, oblige the British to observe American neutral rights. For the next fifteen years, the United States benefited from the treaty greatly. • John Jay led a delegation to London to negotiate. • Jay brought back a treaty that was hotly debated in the U.S. • Republicans attacked the treaty, while Federalists defended. • Jay’s Treaty (1794) was ratified in the Senate by a vote of 20-10 in 1795. The Pinckney Treaty (1795) • Totally unexpected was the effects that the Jay Treaty had on Spain’s policy toward its territory in the Americas Pinckney's diplomatic success with Spain made him popular at home, and on his return the Federalist party made him a candidate in the 1796 presidential election (as the intended running-mate of John Adams). While Adams won the presidential election, complicated scheming to ensure that Pinckney would have more presidential votes than Adams ended up making their opponent Thomas Jefferson vicepresident -fear that the U.S. and Britain might be drawing closer (Spain wanted to consolidate holdings) -Thomas Pinckney (U.S. minister to Spain) negotiated treaty in which Spain agreed to open lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to trade -Right of Deposit established: Americans could transfer cargoes in New Orleans without paying duties to Spain -also set the border with Spanish Florida at the 31st parallel What had Washington learned? • In 1796, when Washington was about to leave office, he outlined the general rules he thought the nation should follow in foreign policy. He would write a document which would be known as Washington’s Farewell Address. Key points were: George Washington's Farewell Address is a letter written by the first American President, George Washington, to "The People of the United States". Washington wrote the letter near the end of his second term as President, before his retirement to his home Mount Vernon. * “…extend our commercial relations with foreign nations, but to have as little political connection with foreign nations as possible.” * “Our distance from Europe permits us to pursue a different course.” * “It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any foreign nation.” Also mentioned was a warning to avoid the formation of political parties and the development of sectionalism Adams’ Foreign Policy The fight between USS Constellation and the Insurgente (Quasi-War) • Outraged with Jay’s Treaty, the French began seizing American ships bound for Britain. • Negotiations with France (the XYZ affair) led to an undeclared war with France. • Many Federalists demanded a declaration of war, but Adams resisted. • Adams continued to negotiate with the French and in September 1800 an agreement was reached: * ended the Franco-American (Alliance)Treaty of 1778 * France agreed to stop seizing ships Jefferson’s Foreign Policy • In the summer of 1801, the U.S. learned of the retrocession of Louisiana to France. • Jefferson feared encroachment on U.S. territory and that U.S. western farmers might wage war or secede from the Union. • Jefferson warned that the day the French took possession of New Orleans that a British/U.S. alliance might be possible. • Before war could erupt, Jefferson sent a delegation to negotiate with Napoleon to purchase New Orleans and land to the east. Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the Treaty of San Ildefonso, after being a Spanish colony since 1762. But, the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the cession to the United States. Jefferson’s Foreign Policy continued… • James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in 1802. • Napoleon offered to sell all of Louisiana for $15 million. The treaty was signed in 1803 and ratified by the Senate. The transfer occurred at noon on December 20, 1803. Ceremony at Place d'Armes, New Orleans marking transfer of Louisiana to the United States (formal ceremony after transfer occurred in December), 10 March 1804, as depicted by Thure de Thulstrup. Jefferson’s Foreign Policy continued… The Lewis and Clark Expedition was especially indebted to a Shoshone woman named Sacajawea, who served as a guide and interpreter • Although the purchase was thought of as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson believed there was no evidence of unconstitutional actions taking place during the purchase of what became fifteen states • In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of Thomas Jefferson’s greatest contributions to the United States. • It more than doubled the size of the U.S., removed foreign presence from nation’s border, and guaranteed western expansion beyond the Mississippi River • The Lewis and Clack expedition was launched in 1804 and concluded two years later Jefferson’s Foreign Policy continued… Burning of the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli • In 1801, Jefferson sent 4 warships to patrol the North African coast and to bombard Tripoli • This was in response to demands for more money from the Pasha of Tripoli and the cutting down of the flagstaff at the U.S. Consulate in Tripoli and declared war. • American marines would attack the city in 1805 in an attempt to replace the current ruler. • While they took the city, the Pasha was paid more money and allowed to keep his throne. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair HMS Leopard (right) fires upon the USS Chesapeake One incident at sea especially angered Americans • In 1807, a few miles off the coast of Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the U.S.S. Chesapeake • Three Americans were killed and four others impressed into the British navy • Anti-British feelings ran high, however Jefferson resorted to diplomacy and economic pressure to the crisis Trying to Stay Neutral The British HMS Sandwich fires on the French flagship Bucentaure (completely dismasted) in the battle of Trafalgar. The Bucentaure also fights HMS Victory (behind her) and HMS Temeraire (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS Sandwich never fought at Trafalgar and her depiction is a mistake by Auguste Mayer, the painter. • The ongoing British/French war would pose two specific problems for the U.S.: * impressment of sailors by Britain * lack of free trade on the sea • Jefferson tried to protect U.S. status as a neutral nation by declaring an embargo in 1807. He cut off all foreign trade – imports as well as exports. Effects of the Embargo A political cartoon showing merchants dodging the "Ograbme", which is 'Embargo' spelled backwards. The embargo was also ridiculed in the New England press as Dambargo, Mob-Rage, or Go-bar-'em. • In Europe: * caused some economic hardship in Great Britain where textile workers lost their jobs * because France was less dependent on foreign trade, it had little effect • In the United States: * New Englanders (dependent on foreign trade) protested * support was strongest in the South and West The Embargo Ends President Jefferson being held up by King George and Napoleon, 1809: a contemporary critique of the Embargo Act • Widespread smuggling led Jefferson to send the navy and 6000 troops to patrol the American coastline. • In March 1809, the Congress repealed the act and passed a new law that allowed trade with all nations except Great Britain and France. • Jefferson reluctantly signed the new law. It was known as the Non-Intercourse Act. • Despite hurting the economy as a whole, the bill did help America begin to industrialize as no British manufactured goods could be imported and had to be instead produced domestically Madison Foreign Policy Blunders James Madison engraving by David Edwin from between 1809 and 1817 • American ships did not always obey the Non-Intercourse Act. • Congress passed Macon’s Bill No. 2 in May 1810. It allowed the President to reopen trade immediately with both Britain and France. • In the event that either of the two warring powers modified its trade policies toward the U.S. before March 1811, the President might reimpose the trade prohibition upon the other. Madison Blunders continued… • • • Napoleon instructed his foreign minister to inform the U.S. that France would revoke their decrees if the U.S. would invoke non-intercourse with Britain. Madison acted before checking: (1) He reopened trade with France and declared trade with Britain closed in February 1811 unless the British revoked their Orders in Council. (2)The British replied by stationing warships outside New York harbor and impressing American seamen. Neither side wanted war, yet one would come the following year (War of 1812) Vessels that eluded British capture were confiscated by Napoleon as soon as they reached France. (Napoleon’s Deception) Timeline • • • • • • 1793- Proclamation of Neutrality was issued 1794- Jay’s Treaty 1795- The Pinckney Treaty 1796- Washington’s Farewell Address 1803- Louisiana Purchase 1807- Chesapeake-Leopard Affair - Embargo Act • 1809- Non Intercourse Act • 1810- Macon’s Bill No. 2 • 1812- War of 1812 Key Names, Events, and Terms • The Franco-American (Alliance) Treaty of 1778 • Treaty of Paris of 1783 • Tariffs, excise tax • Proclamation of Neutrality (1793) • “Citizen” Edmond Genêt • Jay Treaty (1794) • Pinckney Treaty (1795) • Right of deposit • Whisky Rebellion • Washington’s farewell address • John Adams • XYZ Affair • Thomas Jefferson • • • • • • • • • • Louisiana Purchase Napoleon Bonoparte Lewis and Clark Expedition Barbary Coast Pirates Impressment Chesapeake-Leopard affair Embargo Act (1807) James Madison Nonintercourse Act (1809) Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810) Question Which of the following was the underlying cause of the other four? (a) the Jay Treaty (b)the French Revolution (c) the XYZ Affair (d) Citizen Genêt controversy (e) Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality Answer B: the French Revolution Additional Question Which of the following accurately characterizes the foreign policy goals of Jefferson and Madison before 1812? (a) strengthen U.S. trade relations with Britain and France (b) maintain U.S. neutral rights without going to war (c) seek alliances with either Britain or France (d) explore various means for acquiring Canada (e) provide aid to independence movements in Latin America Answer B: maintain U.S. neutral rights without going to war