Download Chap 7 2012 Memory - Franklin High School

Chapter 7
Memory
One of the Tests at the World Memory
Championships
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30 Seconds
World Memory Championships
• 26 seconds to remember a shuffled pack of
52 playing cards
• 1404 cards memorized in 1 hour
• 396 random digits memorized in 5 minutes
• 4140 random binary digits (1-1101)
memorized in 30 minutes
Which Penny is correct?
Human Memory: Basic Questions
• How does information get into memory?
• How is information maintained in memory?
• How is information pulled back out of
memory?
• Memory timeline
– Short term – recent?
– Long term – remote?
– Operational definitions
Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Three-Stage
Processing Model of Memory
Remembering is thought to involve at least three steps. Incoming information is first held for
a second or two by sensory memory. Information selected by attention is then transferred to
temporary storage in short-term memory. If new information is not rapidly encoded, or
rehearsed, it is forgotten. If it is transferred to long-term memory, it becomes relatively
permanent, although retrieving it may be a problem. The preceding is a useful model of
memory; it may not be literally true of what happens in the brain (Eysenck & Keane, 1995).
An Example of How the Model Works
Suppose that you wanted to memorize the phone number
of a restaurant: 562-7837. In terms of the model, your
goal is to get this information into long-term memory.
Scanning the page, you find the listing you want. This is a
“sensory input” to the system. The first stop is sensory
memory.
A copy is made in sensory memory of the visual patterns,
562-7837.
Generally, just paying attention to something in sensory
memory moves it to short-term memory.
However, with verbal information, there is an extra step
because short-term memory prefers to take information in an
auditory form—a form you can hear.
This is called auditory encoding, the conversion of visual
patterns to sounds. You do this when you “listen” to the
sounds of these words on the screen.
It involves pattern recognition. Visual patterns in sensory
memory are compared to prototypes in long-term memory.
When you become aware of these sounds, you know they are in
short-term memory. The process of auditory encoding has
been completed.
You have a new sequence of sounds in short-term memory:
562-7837. Your goal is to move this sequence into long-term
memory.
There are two strategies for moving information from STM to
LTM: (1) repetition; (2) elaboration.
When you repeat (rehearse) information, two things happen:
1. You recirculate it in STM. Each time you do this, you
“reset the clock” and get another few seconds before the
information decays.
2. You increase the chances that the information will be
copied into LTM. But this is an unreliable strategy.
Automatic versus Effortful Processing
• Automatic processing
– unconscious coding of incidental information and of
well learned information
– Implicit memory (Bernstein)
• Effortful Processing
– Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
– Explicit memory (Bernstein)
• Rehearsal
– The conscious repetition of information
Encoding: Getting Information Into
Memory
!
• The role of attention
• Focusing awareness
• Selective attention = selection of input
– Filtering: early or late? – F 7.3
• Multitasking – issues of driving
performance and cell phone use – study by
Strayer and Johnson (2001)
Types of Encoding
• Semantic encoding
– The encoding of meaning
• Acoustic encoding
– The encoding of sound, particularly the sound of
words.
• Visual encoding
– The encoding of visual (picture) images.
– Earliest memories include visual images
– Rosy retrospection- the tendency to remember
events more favorably than when they first occurred
Types of Encoding (Craik &Tulvig, 1975)
Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart (1972)
• Incoming information processed at different
levels: F 7.5
• Deeper processing = longer lasting
memory codes
• Encoding levels:
– Structural = shallow
– Phonemic = intermediate
– Semantic = deep
Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory
• Elaboration = linking a stimulus to
other information at the time of
encoding
– Thinking of examples
• Visual Imagery = creation of visual
images to represent words to be
remembered
– Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding
theory – Figure 7.7, Paivio et al. (1968)
>>>>>>>>>>>
• Self-Referent Encoding
– Making information personally meaningful
Practice Makes Perfect (or helps)
• The amount remembered depends on the time
spent learning.
• Overlearning increases retention.
• Next-in line effect
• “sleep learning” does not occur, however, sleep
does improve learning.
• Spacing effect (distributed repetition vs. mass
practice
• Serial position effect
– Primacy and recency effect
Effortful Processing
Novel information
committed to memory
requires effort, like learning
a concept from a text. Such
processing leads to durable
and accessible memories.
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
19
Sensory Memory
• Storing an exact copy of incoming
information for a fraction of a second
(either what is seen or heard); the first
stage of memory (1/4 of a second)
– Icon: A fleeting mental image or visual
representation
– Echo: After a sound is heard, a brief
continuation of the activity in the auditory
system
Sensory Memory
• Brief preservation of information in original
sensory form
• Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
– George Sperling (1960)
• Classic experiment on visual sensory store
• Partial report procedure – F 7.9
Short Term Memory (STM)
• Limited capacity – magical number 7
plus or minus 2
– Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for
storage as a single unit
• Limited duration – about 20 seconds
without rehearsal
– Rehearsal – the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the information
Long Term Memory
• Theoretically unlimited
• Three types of memory storage
– Semantic
• Meaning
– Episodic
• Memory of an event at which you were present
– Procedural
• Memory of “how to do” something- skill memory
How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in
Memory?
!
Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
!
!
!
!
!
!
Schemas and Scripts – Shank & Abelson
Semantic Networks – Collins & Loftus
Figure 7.14 A semantic network..
Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory
•
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval
– Retrieval cues – Brown & McNeil (1966) study – resolve block 57%
of the time with first letter of failed to retrieve word
•
Recalling an event
– Context cues – Godden & Baddeley (1975) – context-dependent
memory study with scuba divers
– Bartlett memory research – War of the Ghosts – F 7.15
•
Reconstructing memories – Loftus studies
– Loftus & Palmer (1974) –I: smashed (40.8);
contacted (31.8)
II:
collided (39.3); bumped (38.1); hit (34.0);
smashed (32%) hit (14%) control (12%) (broken glass?)
– Misinformation effect
• Source monitoring: people make decisions at the time of retrieval uncertain
about where their memory is coming from
• reality monitoring: involving determining whether memories are based in actual
events (external sources) or your imagination (internal sources)…kidnapped by
aliens? Possible error in reality monitoring.
Retrieval
• Recall
• A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve
information learned earlier (fill in the blank)
• List the names of the seven dwarfs from Snow White
• Recognition
• A measure of memory in which the person must only identify
information previously learned (multiple choice)
• Relearning
• A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time
saved when learning material a second time (method of
savings)
• Priming
– The activation, often unconsciously, of particular
associations in memory
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Effortful learning usually
requires rehearsal or
conscious repetition. !
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables: TUV
YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
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Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve – F 7.17
• Retention – the proportion of material
retained –
F 7.18
– Recall
– Recognition
– Relearning
• Hill of reminiscence – time frame of
remembering
Serial Position Effect
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
TUV
ZOF
GEK
WAV
XOZ
TIK
FUT
WIB
SAR
POZ
REY
GIJ
Better recall
Poor recall
Better recall
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Serial Position
Primacy and Recency Effect
Why Do We Forget?
• Ineffective
Encoding
• Decay theory
• Interference
theory
– Proactive
– Retroactive
Figure 7.19
Why We Forget
• Ineffective Encoding
– Lack of attention
• Decay
– Memory trace fades
• Interference
– Competition between memories
• Encoding specificity principle
– Does memory correspond with memory code
• Motivated forgetting
– Repressed memories
The Physiology of Memory
• Biochemistry
– Alteration in synaptic transmission
• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
• Protein synthesis
• Neural circuitry
– Localized neural circuits
• Reusable pathways in the brain
• Long-term potentiation – changes in postsynaptic neuron
• Anatomy
– Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia –
– Anterograde amnesia, is the loss of short-term memory, the
loss or impairment of the ability to form new memories
through memorization. Persons may find themselves
constantly forgetting information, people or events after a few
seconds or minutes, because the data does not transfer
successfully from their conscious short-term memory into
permanent long-term memory.
– http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/us/05hm.html
• Anatomy
– Anterograde Amnesia is the loss of short-term memory, the loss
or impairment of the ability to form new memories through
memorization. Persons may find themselves constantly forgetting
information, people or events after a few seconds or minutes, because
the data does not transfer successfully from their conscious short-term
memory into permanent long-term memory.
!
– http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/us/05hm.html
!
– Retrograde Amnesia, the loss of pre-existing memories to conscious
recollection, beyond an ordinary degree of forgetfulness. The person
may be able to memorize new things that occur after the onset of
amnesia (unlike in anterograde amnesia), but is unable to recall some or
all of their life or identity prior to the onset.
!
Memory Subsystems
Flashbulb Memory
Ruters/ Corbis
An unique and highly emotional moment can give rise
to clear, strong, and persistent memory called
flashbulb memory. Though this memory is not free
from errors.
President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.
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Eidetic Imagery (Somewhat Like
Photographic Memory)
• Occurs when a person (usually a child)
has visual images clear enough to be
scanned or retained for at least 30
seconds
• Usually projected onto a “plain” surface,
like a blank piece of paper
• Usually disappears during adolescence
and is rare by adulthood
Eyewitness Accounts
• Use of Eyewitness in court cases – Cutler
& Penrod (1995), Loftus (1993)
• Post information distortion
• Source confusion
• Hindsight bias
• Overconfidence
Improving Everyday Memory
• Engage
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
in adequate rehearsal – overlearning
Testing effect
Serial position effects – F 7.28
Distribute practice and minimize interference - F 7.29
Emphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate
processing
Organize information
Encoding specificity – vary location of studying
Use verbal mnemonics – narrative stories – Figure
7.30 >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Use visual mnemonics – method of Loci – Figure 7.31
Akira Haraguchi, 60, needed more than (10/3/2006)
16 hours to recite pi (π) to 100,000 decimal places,
breaking his personal best of 83,431 digits set in
2005.