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Period 1: c.1450 to c.1648
• Why 1450? Start of the Renaissance, Age of Exploration
• Why 1648? End of the 30 Years’ War, Peace of Westphalia
• Big Events: Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution, Age of
Exploration, Religious Wars, Development of New Monarchs, WitchHunting, Military Revolution
Map of Europe: 1400
Map of Europe 1500
Map of Europe 1600
• KC 1.1: The worldview of European intellectuals shifted from one based
on ecclesiastical and classical authority to one based primarily on
inquiry and observation of the natural world.
I. A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values in
both society and religion
• Humanist praised mankind as “heroic” and “divine”
• No longer intrinsically unworthy
• Mirandola: Individual was an independent and autonomous being with moral
choices
• Humanist shifted focus of education away from theology toward the study
of the classical texts
• Alberti: The Greco-Romans believed that the painted and the sculptor
understood and portrayed the soul when they reproduced the human face
• The artist had to be able to reveal the emotions and passions of the figures he
depicted
• Civic Humanism: Application of the classics to individuals and government
• Machiavelli: Wrote extensively about the relationship between the government
and the people
• “The ends justify the means”
• II. The invention of the printing press promoted the dissemination of new
ideas.
• Led to vernacular languages and eventually national cultures
• III. The visual arts incorporated the news ideas of the Renaissance and
were used to promote personal, political and religious goals
Michelangelo
Raphael
• Human-centered naturalism that
considered individuals and
everyday life appropriate objects
of artistic representation
El Greco
• Mannerist and baroque artists employed distortion, drama,
and illusion in works commissioned by monarchies, citystates, and the church for public buildings to promote their
stature and power
• Isolated atop a mountain, a gaunt, tormented Christ
dominates a nearly empty landscape. On a road leading to
the walled city of Jerusalem, horsemen pass by the
execution hill, literally turning their backs on Christ. El
Greco's use of dramatic colors and exaggerated
proportions distorts the figure, conveying the transcendent
moment when Christ sublimated his physical pain and
commended his spirit to God. Turning his eyes upward
toward heaven, Christ looks away from the bones and
skulls that lie at his feet, representative of his triumph over
death. Light plays across his undulating form, illuminating
his tortured body against the dark background. To heighten
empathy between the viewer and Christ, the elongated but
graceful figure appears alone. This private, devotional
image was meant to encourage contemplation and
spiritual reflection. (Text and picture from www.getty.edu)
• IV. New ideas in science based on observations, experimentation, and
mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the
human body, although folk traditions of knowledge and the universe
persisted
• Heliocentric model of the universe
• Advances in anatomical and medical discoveries – Harvey: fixed many errors from
ancient scientists; heart was beginning point of blood and only one type of blood
flow
• Vesalius: He used dissection and observation to get a more clear view of
anatomical structure and corrected many errors from Galen. He learned that great
blood vessels originate in the heart, not the liver
• Bacon and Descartes: inductive and deductive reasoning, promoting
experimentation
• Some people still clung to alchemy and astrology
• Newton: God had left clues in the heavens about the world and certain clues in previous
records
• KC 1.2: The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted
in varying degrees of political centralization
• Three trends shaped early modern political development
• 1. Decentralized power and authority to centralized
• 2. Political elite primarily of a hereditary landed nobility towards one open to men
distinguished by their education, skills, and wealth
• 3. Religious towards secular norms of law and justice
• Military revolution made knights unnecessary
• Kings with the ability to create taxes and with the revenue could afford big state
armies
• The kings of Western Europe were no longer financially or militarily dependent on the
nobles
• I. The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law
plated a central role in the creation of new political institutions
• New monarchs established a monopoly on tax collection, military force, and the
dispensing of justice, and gaining the right to determine the religion of their
subjects
• Peace of Augsburg(1555): Attempted policy of religious compromise by Charles V
in an attempt to prevent religious warfare in the HRE. The princes in the HRE
could decide if their people would be Catholic or Lutheran(no acknowledgement
for Calvinist or other Protestants)
• Edict of Nantes(1598): Attempted policy of religious compromise by Henry
IV(politique). This officially made Catholicism the state religion of France, but
allowed Huguenots the right to practice their religion.
• Peace of Westphalia(1648): Marked the effective end of medieval idea
of universal Christendom and accelerated the decline of the HRE
• Commercial and professional groups gained in power and played a
greater role in political affairs
• Nobles of the robe: As a way to generate money, the kings of France sold
positions of nobility to wealthy nobles
• Secular political theories, such as those espoused in The Prince provided
a new concept of the state
• Bodin: Sovereign power consisted of the authority to make laws, tax, administer
justice, control the state’s administrative system, and determine foreign policy
• II. The competitive state system led to new patterns of diplomacy and new
forms of warfare
• Balance of power played an important role in diplomatic and military objectives after
the Peace of Westphalia
• Advances in military favored the state
• France created a massive state army, using taxes on the middle class to generate the
necessary money
• III. The competition for power between monarchs and corporate groups
produced different distributions of government authority in European states
• English Civil War, conflict between the monarchy and Parliament exemplified this
competition
• James I: Wanted to rule as a divine-right monarchy. Parliament resisted this by refusing
his requests for additional money. This conflict became worse under Charles I and led
to the English Civil War
• The Fronde in France: Revolts of the French nobles that were trying to resist the
centralized power of the monarchs, but these were crushed and many concluded that
best hope for stability in France was the monarch
• KC 1.3: Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified Europe
• I. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations fundamentally changed
theology, religious institutions, and culture
• Christian humanism, embodied in the writings of Erasmus, employed Renaissance
learning in the service of religious reform
• Sir Thomas More: He believed in a strict adherence to Christian values and was very disturbed
by the developing materialism and resisted the attempts to break from the Catholic Church
• Indulgences: The Catholic Church was selling a “free pass” to salvation. This policy
created a lot of criticism and was a spark of the Protestant Reformation
• Catholic Reformation, exemplified by the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent,
revived the church but cemented the division within Christianity
• Index of Prohibited Books: A list of books that Catholics were not allowed to read
• II. Religious reforms both increased state control of religious institutions
and provided justifications for challenging state authority
• Monarchs and princes, such as Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, initiated religious reform
from the top down to exercise greater control over religious life
• Book of Common Prayer: This prayer book reflected the religious changes in
England and divide with the Catholic Church
• Huguenots: Challenged the authority of the French monarch by resisting their
control. Huguenots attempted to create their own laws and resisted taxation from
the crown.
• III. Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and
economic competition within and among states
• The late 1500s was a time of religious warfare in France
• St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre: Charles IX and his advisers decided to kill
prominent Huguenots in Paris, and the violence spread when mobs of Catholics
killed Huguenots
• Religious warfare continued, but was finally stopped when Henry of Navarre took the throne
and issued the Edict of Nantes
• The Habsburgs attempted, but failed to restore Catholic unity across
Europe
• Philip II: He wanted to re-catholicize all of Europe. He attempted to crush a
rebellion in the Netherlands, but made the mistake of trying to attack England
first. In 1588, his Armada suffered a major defeat. His goal of restoring
Catholicism failed.
• Thirty Years’ War: France, Sweden, and Denmark used the war as an excuse to
increase taxation and exert more control over their own people. It also allowed
these countries to weaken the HRE.
• Poland: This was one of the few states in Europe that allowed religious plurality.
Poland had a weak monarch and the nobles had a large amount of control over
the religion of their people. No centralized religion was forced on the people of
Poland
• KC 1.4: Europeans explored and settled overseas territories,
encountering and interacting with indigenous populations.
• By the 17th century, Europeans had forged a global trade network that gradually
edged out earlier Muslim and Chinese domination
• Mercantilism: Economic theory which promoted government management of
economic imperatives and policies
• I. European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to
explore overseas territories and establish colonies
• II. Advances in navigation, cartography, and military technology allowed
Europeans to establish overseas colonies and empires
• Stern-post rudder: Steering mechanism that made directional control of ships
much easier
• Guns and gunpowder: These gave the Europeans a huge advantage over the
people they encountered in the rest of the world
• III. Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks
through coercion and negotiation
• Competition for trade led to conflicts and rivalries among European powers
• IV. Europe’s colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods,
flora, fauna, cultural practices, and diseases, resulting in the
destruction of some indigenous civilizations, a shift toward European
dominance, and the expansion of the slave trade.
• Trade shift fro Mediterranean to the Atlantic
• Columbian Exchange led to subjugation and destruction of indigenous
peoples
• Many new crops were introduced to the Americas: Wheat, Cattle, Horses, Pigs, Sheep
• But also diseases: Small pox and measles
• Manny new crops went to Europe: Tomatoes, Potatoes, Squash, Corn, Tobacco, Turkeys
• Syphilis was only disease
• Slave trade expanded as a result of the plantation economies
• KC 1.5: European society and the experiences of everyday life were
increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism,
notwithstanding the persistence of medieval social and economic
structures.
• More silver and higher population led to a “price revolution”, which was a high
cost for goods and services
• Development of capitalist economies and things like joint-stock companies to
conduct overseas trade
• By mid-17th Europe no longer had the communal values and people were
responding to very difficult economic times by becoming more individualistic
• Leisure time was still communal, as was the enforcement of social norms
• I. Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of
hierarchy and status persisted.
• Growth of urban financial centers and a money economy
• Bank of Amsterdam: Started in 1609 as both a deposit and transfer institution,
and eventually a stock exchange. This emerged as the European hub of business.
• Gentry in England: Well-to-do landowners below the level of nobility, held many
positions in the House of Commons and also local government. They became a
very strong group.
• Rural areas remained unchanged; hierarchy and status continued to define social
power
• II. Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented
their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although
economic changes began to alter rural production and power
• Subsistence farming was common in most rural areas
• Price revolution favored the commercialization of agriculture, which benefited
large landowners.
• Enclosure Movement: Governments were enclosing small farms and selling them
off to big landowners, this created a group of landless wage laborers
• **As western Europe moved toward a free peasantry and commercial
agriculture, serfdom was codified in the east
• Landlords restricting rights led to revolt
• III. Population shifts and growing commerce caused the expansion of
cities, which often found their traditional political and social structures
stressed by the growth
• Population pressure contributed to uneven price increases; agricultural
commodities increased more sharply than wages
• Migrants challenged the ability of merchant elites and craft guilds to govern and
strained resources
• Sanitation problems: As population rose, cites dealt with far dirtier conditions. There was no
infrastructure in place for bringing in/out water or garbage
• Social dislocation and weakening religious institutions, left city government to
regulate morality
• Stricter codes on prostitution and begging: Cities made laws to regulate prostitution and
attempted to limit beggars, but the underlying assumption was that people were in these
positions by choice. The social attitude towards poverty was changing, people looked at the
poor as lazy
• IV. The family remained the primary social and economic institution of
early modern Europe and took several forms, including the nuclear
family
• Rural and urban households worked as units
• Renaissance and Reformation raised debates about female roles in the family
• La Querelle des Femmes: The debate about whether women should be able to study in
universities and the overall role they should play
• From the late 16th, economic changes delayed marriage, which slowed population
growth and improved economic conditions
• V. Popular culture, leisure activities, and rituals reflecting the persistence
of folk ideas reinforced and sometimes challenged communal ties and
norms
• Leisure was organize around religious calendar and communal
• Blood sports: People enjoyed watching things like cock fighting and bull baiting,
people in the Renaissance age viewed animals as soulless creatures
• There were rituals of public humiliation in an attempt to keep communal order;
people were put in stocks for committing crimes or violations of social norms
Period 2: c. 1648 to c. 1815
• Why 1648: End of 30 Years War, Peace of Westphalia
• Why 1815: Congress of Vienna
• Big Events: More Science, Enlightenment, Age of Revolutions,
Napoleon, Warfare for Colonies, Emergence of England as the world
power
Map of Europe 1600
Map of Europe 1700
Map of Europe 1800
• KC 2.1: Different models of political sovereignty affected the
relationship among states and between states and individuals.
• I. In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of the
17th and 18th centuries
• Limited the nobility's participation in government but preserved their social and legal position
• Peter the Great: Table of Ranks: Created opportunities for non-nobles to serve the state and
join the nobility. He was trying to create a system based on merit and a way to limit the power
of the hereditary nobles. He also created a senate to supervise the administrative machinery of
the state and brought westernization to Russia; thinking that Russia needed to be more like the
Western European countries
• Louis XIV and his fiancé minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, extended the administrative, financial,
military, and religious control of the central state: Strengthening of the intendant system,
mercantilism, and Edict of Fountainebleau
• A few monarchs experimented with enlightened absolutism
• Frederick II of Prussia: Followed a single law code and eliminated the use of torture. He also granted
limited free speech and press as well as complete religious toleration. However, he was too
dependent on the nobilities to end serfdom
• Inability of Polish monarchy to consolidate power over the nobility led to weakness and
eventual loss all land to Austria, Prussia, and Russia
• II. Challenges to absolutism resulted in alternative political systems
• Outcome of English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution protected the rights of
gentry and aristocracy from absolutism through assertions of the rights of
Parliament
• English Bill of Rights: Affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes and Parliament
had to consent to the raising of an army. Citizens had the guaranteed right to petition the
king, keep arms, have a jury trial, and not be subject to excessive bail. The BOR helped create
a system of government based on the rule of law and a freely elected Parliament. This did not
address freedom of religion
• The Dutch Republic developed an oligarchy of urban gentry and rural landholders
to promote trade and protect traditional rights
• III. After 1648, dynastic and state interests, along with Europe’s
expanding colonial empires, influenced the diplomacy of European
states and frequently led to war
• After 30 Years’ War the HRE had limited power, Prussia rose to power and the
Habsburgs, centered in Austria, shifted their empire eastward
• Maria Theresa of Austria(1740-1780): Reorganized Austria society by curtailing the power of
the ruling diets. Clergy and nobles were required to pay taxes directly to royal officials.
Austrians and Bohemian lands were divided into ten provinces; administration was
centralized and armed forces were expanded. This centralization and expansion were in
preparation for a war with Prussia.
• Austria defeat the Turks in 1683 and Louis XIV undertook nearly continuous wars
• War of the Spanish Succession(1702-1713): Charles II, king of Spain, left his throne to the
grandson of Louis XIV. Coalition of England, the United Provinces, Habsburg Austria, and
German states waged war to prevent France from combining the two kingdoms. Peace of
Utrecht(1713) confirmed Philip V as king of Spain and kept thrones divided.
• Continued warfare between Britain and France; 7 Years’ War would end with
Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power
• IV. The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s
existing political and social order
• Caused by Enlightenment ideas, exacerbated by short-term fiscal and economic
crises
• First phase of the revolution established a constitutional monarchy, increased
popular participation, nationalized Catholic church, and abolished hereditary
privileges
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy: Both bishops and priests were to be elected by the people and
paid by the church. All clergy were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the state
Constitution, which was forbidden by the church
• After execution of Louis XVI, radical Jacobin Republic led by Robespierre instituted
Reign of Terror, fixing prices and wages, and pursued a policy de-Christianization
• Committee of Public Safety: Courts were established to protect the revolution from enemies at
home; created the “republic of virtue” Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
• Revolutionary armies brought changed to the rest of Europe, women
enthusiastically participated but received few gains, revolutionary ideas inspired a
slave revolt in Haiti(independent by 1804), some were inspired by revolutionary
emphasis on equality and human rights, but others condemned its violence and
disregard for traditional authority
• V. Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolution, Napoleon
Bonaparte imposed French control over much of the European continent
that eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction.
• Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms while curtailing
rights and manipulation people behind a façade of representative institutions
• Civil Code: Recognized the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law, the rights of
individuals to choose their professions, religious toleration, and the abolition of serfdom and
feudalism
• Censorship: Napoleon shut down sixty of France’s newspapers(out of 73) and insisted that all
manuscripts be subjected to government scrutiny before they were published. Even the mail
was opened by government police
• New military tactics allow him to exert direct or indirect control over much of
Europe, spreading ideals of the French Revolution
• Napoleon’s expanding empire created nationalist responses throughout Europe
• After the defeat of Napoleon by a coalition of French powers, the Congress of
Vienna(1814-1815) attempted to restore the balance of power and contain the
danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future.
• KC 2.2: The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth
of a worldwide economic network
• European societies –first those with access to the Atlantic and gradually those to
the east and on the Mediterranean – provided increasing percentages of their
populations with a higher standard of living
• Availability labor power, institutions and practices that supported economic activity and
provided incentives, accumulations of capital for financing enterprises and innovations,
technological innovations in food production, transportation, communication, and
manufacturing
• Development of a growing consumer society, but the geographic mobility eroded traditional
community and family solidarities and protections
• European economic strength derived in part from the ability to control and exploit resource
around the globe, but eastern Europe countries in a traditional, principally agrarian economy
• I. Early modern Europe developed a market economy that provided the foundation
for its global role
• Labor and trade in commodities were increasingly freedom from traditional governmental
restrictions
• Le Chapelier Laws: To prevent continued associations of workers based on such economic
interests, Le Chapelier introduced a measure (passed into law on 14 June 1791) that historians
remember by his name, the "Le Chapelier law." It barred craft guilds and would bar trade unions
until 1884.
• The Agricultural Revolution raised productivity and increased the supply of food
• Cottage industry, or putting-out system, expanded
• Bank of England: The Bank of England was founded in 1694 to act as the Government's banker and
debt-manager. Since then its role has developed and evolved, centered on the management of the
nation's currency and its position at the center of the UK's financial system.
• II. The European-dominated worldwide economic network contributed to the
agricultural, industrial, and consumer revolutions in Europe
• States followed mercantilist policies by exploiting colonies and transatlantic slave-labor
system expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries as demand for New World products
increased
• Triangle Trade: Trade network that connected Europe, the Americas, and Africa. Slaves went to
the Americas, some good went to Africa to pay for the slaves, many crops came back to Europe
from the Americas
• Consumer culture developed in Europe
• Tea: Once introduced to Europe, there was a great demand for tea and other products from
China
• Food from the Americas led to increase in food supply in Europe
• Foreign lands provided raw materials, finished goods, laborers, and markets
• III. Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European
states in the early modern era
• European sea powers vied for Atlantic influence throughout 18th century
• Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British rivalries in Asia culminated in British domination in
India and Dutch control of East Indies
• KC 2.3: The popularization and dissemination of the Scientific
Revolution and the application of its methods to political, social, and
ethical issues led to an increased, although not unchallenged, emphasis
on reason in European culture
• Europeans applied methods of science to human affairs
• Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot aimed to place faith in divine revelation with faith
in human reason and classical values
• John Locke and Adam Smith questioned absolutism and mercantilism by arguing
for the authority of natural law and the market
• Belief in progress, along with improved social and economic conditions, spurred
gains in literacy and education as well as the creation of a new culture of the
printed word
• Religious revival occurred, but elite culture embraced skepticism, secularism, and
atheism
• Religious toleration, or at least acceptance, increased
• The new rationalism faced some challenges with revival of sentimentalism and
emotionalism of romanticism and nationalism
• I. Rational and empirical thought challenged traditional values and ideas
• Montesquieu: He wrote about different types of government and concluded that
have a system with a separation of powers and checks and balances
• Locke and Rousseau developed political models based on the concept of natural
rights, but for Rousseau, these rights still did not apply to women
• Mary Wollstonecraft: She wrote In Vindication of the Rights of Women and argued that
women having to obey men was contrary to beliefs of the same individuals that a system
based on the arbitrary power of monarchs on wrong. And, if all people have reason, then that
applies to women and they should have equal rights
• II. New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas
• Salons explored and disseminated Enlightenment culture
• Coffeehouses: This became a place where people from all walks of life would gather and
mingle, exchanging news and having discusses and debates
• Newspapers: Despite censorship, newspapers served a growing literate public and led to the
development of public opinion
• Through literature, Europeans were being exposed to representations of peoples
outside Europe
• III. New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and
mercantilism.
• Locke: The state originated in the consent of the governed(the social contract) rather than
in divine right or tradition
• Mercantilist theory and practices were challenged by people like Adam Smith, arguing for
free trade and a free market
• Physiocrats: They believe that land, rather than gold and silver, was the real source of wealth and
that the natural market forces of supply and demand should not be manipulated by the government,
rather the government should apply laissez-faire
• IV. During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led to
natural religion and the demand for religious toleration
• Intellectuals, including Voltaire and Diderot, develop new philosophies of deism,
skepticism, and atheism
• Hume:. He argued that observation and reflection, grounded in “systematized common sense” made
conceivable a “science of man”. Careful examination of the experiences that constituted human life
would lead to the knowledge of human nature
• Religion was increasingly view as a private matter rather than public and toleration
extended to Christian minorities and, in some states, civil equality to Jews
V. The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and
royal power to an emphasis on private life and the public good
• Until 1750, Baroque art and music
promoted religious feeling and
was employed by monarchs to
glorify state power
• Velasquez: Spanish painter who was
the leading artist in the court of King
Philip IV. He was important as a
portrait artist. In addition to
numerous renditions of scenes of
historical and cultural significance,
he painted scores of portraits of the
Spanish royal family, other notable
European figures, and commoners,
culminating in the production of his
masterpiece Las Meninas (1656).
Artistic movement and literature also reflected the outlook and values
of commercial and bourgeois as well as Enlightenment ideas of political
power and citizenship
• Dutch Painting: Although Dutch
painting of the Golden Age comes in
the general European period of
Baroque, and often shows many of its
characteristics, most lacks the
idealization and love of splendor
typical of much Baroque work. Most
work, including that for which the
period is best known, reflects the
traditions of detailed realism.
• Image to the right: Johannes Vermeer,
The Milkmaid (1658–1660)
Samuel Richardson
• Richardson’s three novels, Pamela, Clarissa, and The History of Sir Charles
Grandison (1753-54), are “epistolary”; that is, they take the form of a collection of
letters written by the characters, not in tranquil recollection after the fact, but “to
the moment,” while the narrative is unfolding. Thus the form of the novels is
autobiographical without the benefit or hindrance of the hindsight that most
autobiographies assume. Richardson’s first novel, Pamela, appears to have be
written through a happy accident: two other printers had asked Richardson, who
was known for his interest in letter-writing, to compose a collection of model
letters for various occasions. A short sequence in this collection--Familiar Letters
(1741)--comprised letters from a serving girl seeking her parents’ advice after her
master had made improper sexual advances upon her. These letters seem to have
inspired Richardson to develop this theme into a “dramatic narrative,” Pamela,
which recounts, mostly in a serving girl’s own voice, how she resists such
advances and is ultimately rewarded by a proper offer of marriage and her
ultimate acceptance into “high life.”
• Source: http://enlightenment-revolution.org/index.php/Richardson,_Samuel
• VI. While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European
ideas, they were challenged by the revival of public sentiment and
feeling
• Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance on reason and emphasized the role
of emotions in the moral improvement of self and society
• Revolution, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emotional state of mass
politics and nationalism
• Romanticism emerged as a challenge to Enlightenment rationality.
• Romanticism: Included the following characteristics: human existence is
subjective and emotional, human knowledge is small compared to the historical
record, individuals rights are dangerous and selfish, the community is more
important, artist were apart from society, escape from industrialization,
immense power in the forces of nature.
Romanticism
• Wandering Above the Sea of Fog
Caspar David Friedrich, 1818
• KC 2.4: The experiences of everyday life were shaped by demographic,
environmental, medical, and technological changes
• 16th-century population explosion, which roughly doubled the European population, left many
social disruptions and demographic disasters
• The European marriage pattern, which limited family size, became most important check on population;
also some couples adopted birth control practices
• By middle 18th century, things were getting better in Europe, because of better weather and many
agricultural and hygiene improvements
• Attitude towards children began to shift in the 18th when there were reductions in child mortality and
increased life expectancy in infants
• By the end of the 18th century, a high portion of Europeans were better fed and educated, but
poverty was still a huge problem that strained charitable resources
• I. In the 17th century, small landholdings, low-productivity agricultural practices,
poor transportation, and adverse weather limited and disrupted the food supply,
causing periodic famines. By the 18th century, Europeans began to escape from the
Malthusian imbalance between population and the food supply, resulting in steady
population growth
• Agricultural Revolution of the 1700s increased the food supply
• In the 18th century, plague disappeared as a major epidemic disease, and inoculation reduced
smallpox morality
• II. The consumer revolution of the 18th century was shaped by a new
concern for privacy, encouraged the purchase of new goods and homes, and
created new venues for leisure activities.
• New concern for privacy: Homes were built to include private retreats, such as the
boudoir; many earlier European homes did not have private bedrooms or spaces
specifically designed as a retreat
• New consumer goods for homes: Porcelain dishes were a way to show wealth,
imported from China
• New Leisure venues: Taverns: People were going to taverns to drink, but also to meetup for discussions and the sharing of information
• III. By the 18th century, family and private life reflected new demographic
patterns and the effects of the commercial revolution
• Although the rate of illegitimate births, population growth was limited by the
European marriage pattern by early birth control
• As infant and child mortality decreased and commercial wealth increased, families
dedicated more space and resources to children and child-rearing, as well as private
life and comfort
• IV. Cities offered economic opportunities, which attracted increasing
migration from rural areas, transforming urban life and creating
challenges from the new urbanites and their families.
• Agricultural Revolution produced more food using fewer workers; so people
migrated to the cities looking for work
• Growth of cities eroded traditional communal values, and city governments
strained to provide protect and a healthy environment
• Concentration of poor in cities led to greater awareness of poverty, crime, and
prostitution as social problems, and prompted increased efforts to police
marginal groups
Period 3: c. 1815 to c. 1914
• Why 1815: Defeat of Napoleon and Congress of Vienna
• Why 1914: World War I
• Big Events: Congress of Vienna, Conservativism, Scramble for Africa,
Industrial Revolution, Nationalism, Revolutions of 1848, Alliance
System
Map of Europe 1800
Map of Europe 1900
• KC 3.1: The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the
continent, where the state played a great role in promoting industry.
• All countries in Europe, had some level of industrialization, but it was most rapid
in Great Britain and then Germany
• By 1870, the European market fluctuation led to more and more governmental
involvement in the manage of the economy include: protective tariffs, military
procurements, and colonial conquests
• I. Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the
mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new
transportation systems
• Britain’s had a ready supplies of coal, iron, and other essential raw materials
• Economic institutions and human capital helped Britain lead the process of
industrialization, largely through private initiative
• Britain’s leadership: Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of 1851: world’s first industrial fair. It
covered 19 acres and contained 100,000 exhibits
• Britain’s parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests
• II. Following the British example, industrialization took root in
continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship
• France moved to industrialization at a more gradual pace, with government
support and will less dislocation of traditional methods of production
• Government support of industrialization: Canals: Government would use the money from
taxes and tariffs to construction canals throughout the cities, also railroad. These could then
be used to transport goods and people.
• Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state to become the leader of a unified
Germany, which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under
government sponsorship.
• Zollverein: A Germany customs union, in 1834, eliminated tools on rivers and roads among
member states. By 1853, all German states except Austria had joined the union
• A combination of factors including geography, lack or resources, dominance of
landed elites, serfdom, and inadequate government support accounted for
eastern and southern Europe’s lag in industrial development
• Lack of adequate transportation: The lack of governmental support and a lack of
infrastructure building by private individuals, left the eastern and southern Europeans
without the necessary roads, bridges, or canals to move goods. Countries like Russia had the
challenge of needing so much investment.
• III. During the second industrial revolution(c. 1870-1914), more areas of
Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased
in scale and complexity.
• Mechanization and the factory system become predominant by 1914
• New technology, communication, and transportation – including railroads –
resulted in fully integrated national economies, more urbanization, and truly
global economic network
• Mass production: The assembly line and interchangeable parts made mass production a
reality.
• Internal Combustion Engine: This made the steam engine obsolete and paved the way for
smaller and lighter engines and faster transportation, and eventually the automobile
• Volatile business cycles in the last quarter of 19th century led corporations and
governments to try to manage market through monopolies, banking practices,
and tariffs.
• KC 3.2: The experiences of everyday life were shaped by
industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in
a particular location
• Industrialization promoted the development of new socioeconomic classes,
especially the proletariat and bourgeoisie
• Economic changes also led to the rise of trade and industrial unions
• More people moved to cities
• The relationship between the government and people began to shift as
governments made more policies to protect child and universalize education
• Middle-class women withdrew from the workforce, while working-class women
increased their participation as wage-laborers
• Industrialization and urbanization changed people’s conception of time, trade
unions assumed responsibility for the social welfare of working class families,
leisure time increased
• Despite continued inequality and poverty, the average standard of living
increased
• I. Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the
industrial regions of Europe
• Industrial areas developed distinct social classes, proletariat and the
bourgeoisie
• Less industrialized areas, dominance of agricultural elites persisted
• Mutual aid societies and trade unions
• II. Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization,
leading to social dislocations.
• Better harvests, industrialization promoted population growth, longer life
expectancy, and lowered infant mortality
• Urbanization led to overcrowding in cities, while rural areas suffered declines in
available labor and weakened communities
• III. Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and
relations for bourgeois and working-class families
• Bourgeois: More focused on nuclear family and the cult of domesticity
• By the end of the century, wages and quality of life for the working class
improved because of laws restricting labor, social welfare programs, improved
diets, and the use of birth control
• Factory Act of 1833: Reduced the number of children in factories and slowly reduced women
in the factories and mines
• Economic motivations for marriage were replaced by companionate marriage
• Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups
• Sports clubs and arenas: Teams sports continued as a way to spend leisure time, but sports
became more professionalize and people shifted from participation to observation
• IV: A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the second
industrial revolution
• Industrialization and mass marketing increase the production and demand for
consumer goods
• Department stores: Constructed of new materials, iron columns and plate-glass windows,
department stores offered consumers an endless variety of goods
• New efficient modes of transportation and other innovations created new
industries, improved the distribution of goods, increased consumerism
• Railroads: These allowed people to live farther away from the factories and alleviated the
strain in the urban areas
• Leisure travel: People began to get more free time and started to travel outside of the city or
away from their homes. Entire industries developed that were central on travel destinations.
• V. Because of the persistence of primitive agricultural practices and landowning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization while
facing famine, debt, and land shortages
• Irish potato famine: The potato crop failures were caused by late blight, a disease
that destroys both the leaves and the edible roots. It led to massive emigration,
about 1.6 million fled Ireland.
• KC 3.3: The problems of industrialization provoked a range of
ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
• French and industrial revolutions triggered dramatic political and social
consequences and new theories to deal them
• Conservatism, liberalism, socialism, nationalism, and even romanticism
• Responses to socioeconomic changed reached a culmination in the revolutions of 1848, but
failure of these uprisings left issues unresolved well in the 20th century
• Labor unions developed and used collective action to demand rights and universal suffrage.
• Feminists and suffragists petitioned and staged protests demanding rights for women
• Political parties emerged as vehicles for advocating reform or reacting to changing
conditions
• Nationalism acted as one of the most powerful engines of political change
• Early nationalism emphasized shared historical and cultural experiences that often
threatened traditional elites
• Over the course of the 19th century, leaders recognized the need to promote national unity
through economic development and expanding state functions
• I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response
to industrial and political revolutions
• Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened selfinterests but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively
participate in its governance
• Anti-Corn Law League: A group that developed to fight against the corn laws which had
imposed high tariffs on imported grain. The 19th century liberals were looking for less
governmental intervention in the economy. Robert Peel, leader of the Tories, persuaded his
associates to support free trade principles.
• Radicals in Britain and republics on the continent demanded universal male
suffrage and full citizen without regard to wealth or property
• Chartists: This group believed that the solution to many societal problems was to make
voting universal to all men and used peaceful methods
• Klemens von Metternich: Led the Congress of Vienna and was huge advocate of
conservatism. He built an alliance with Austria, Prussia, and Russia to crush liberal
movements in Europe
• Socialists called for a fair distribution of society’s resources and evolved from a
utopian to Marxist scientific critique of capitalism
• Charles Fourier: Utopian socialist who proposed the formation of self-contained cooperatives
• Continued…I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a
response to industrial and political revolutions
• Marxism and anarchism
• August Babel: Member of the German Social Democratic Party that espoused revolutionary
Marxist rhetoric while organizing itself as a mass political party
• Anarchists: Mikhail Bakunin: Believed that small groups of well-trained, fanatical revolutionaries
could perpetrate so much violence that the state and its institutions would disintegrate
• Nationalism encouraged loyalty to the nation in a variety of ways
• Giuseppe Mazzini: Formed a group called Young Italy with its goal the creation of a united Italian
republic. The rebellion of Italians in 1848 and 1849 failed to create a republic, largely because of
the intervention of foreign powers. However, this idea would be reached in the 1860s
• Anti-Semitism: Karl Lueger: As the mayor of Vienna, he created a problem of anti-Semitic policies
and blaming Jews for the corruption of German culture
• Jewish Nationalism: Theodor Herzl, in 1896, published a book in which he put forth the notion of a
Jewish state. He received some support for the creation of a Jewish community in Palestine
• II. Governments responded to the problems created or exacerbated by
industrialization by expanding their functions and creating modern
bureaucratic states
• Liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist economic and social
policies on behalf of the less privileged
• Governments transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing
infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing
modern police forces
• Urban Redesign: Cities were reconstructed with better planning and sanitation. For example,
Napoleon III were the help of Haussmann designed Paris. The wider cities had a practical
purpose, allowing the military to move in and crush rebellions.
• Governments promoted compulsory public education to advance the goals of
public order, nationalism, and economic growth
• III. Political movements and social organizations responded to the problems
of industrializations.
• Mass-based political parties emerges as vehicles for change
• Conservatives and Liberals in Great Britain: These two political parties emerged as the two
strongest parties. At first conservatives faired less services and less voting rights. They traded
terms, but ultimately both saw the value of expanded voting rights and more services for the
people.
• Workers established labor unions and movements that also developed into political
parties
• German Social Democratic Party: At first started as a party of socialist, but by 1912 it was the
biggest party in the Germany Reichstag and had become less revolutionary and more revisionist
• Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women
• Flora Tristan: She preached the need for the liberation of women and full equality
• Private groups sought to lift up the deserving poor and end serfdom and slavery
• Josephine Butler: Objected to laws that unfairly punished women, especially the Contagious
Disease Acts that punished women, but not men for the spread of venereal disease
• Young Prostitutes: Young women that felt like they had no other work opportunities besides
becoming prostitutes, many groups attempted to help these young prostitutes, because they left
that they were “deserving poor”. Groups distinguished behind “undeserving” and “deserving”
poor
• KC 3.4: European states struggled to maintain international stability in
an age of nationalism and revolutions.
• After the French Revolution and Napoleon era, the world leaders met to
suppress liberal and preserve a balance of power
• Revolution swept Europe in 1848, triggered by poor economic conditions, slow
pace of political change, and unfulfilled nationalist hopes
• However, conservative leaders held off these revolutions
• New conservatives emerged that were willing to address some of the demands
of their people
• The Crimean War ended the balance of power from the Napoleonic Age and set
the stage of the unification of Italy and Germany; led to the realpolitik – Cavour
and Bismarck
• After the Crimean War, Russia undertook a series of internal reforms aimed at
achieving nationalism
• After the new German Emperor Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck in 1890,
Germany’s diplomatic approach altered significantly
• A change in diplomacy, the breakdown of alliances, militarism, and nationalism
led to World War I.
• I. The Concert of Europe(or Congress System) sought to maintain the
status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.
• Metternich, leader of the Concert, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal
revolutions
• Conservatives re-established control, through the Principle of Intervention of the
Congress, and attempted to suppress movements for change and strengthen
adherence to religious authorities
• Greek War of Independence: The Greeks had long been controlled by the Ottoman Empire,
but revolted in 1830. The conservatives of Europe did not like nationalist revolutions, but in
this case were more concerned with weakening the Ottoman Empire. So, the Greeks had
support from the big powers.
• The revolutions of 1848 challenged the conservative orders and led to the end of
the Concert of Europe
• II. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for
movements of national unification in Italy and Germany as well as liberal
reforms elsewhere.
• The Crimean War demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and
contributed to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, creating conditions in
which Italy and Germany could unify
• A new breed of conservative leaders, including Napoleon III, Cavour, and
Bismarck, co-opted the agenda of nationalists for the purposed of creating or
strengthening the state.
• The creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which recognized the
political power of the largest ethnic minority, was an attempt to stabilize the
state by reconfiguring the national unity
• In Russia, autocratic leaders pushed reforms and modernization, which gave rise
to revolutionary movements
• Alexander II: He freed the serfs in 1861 and instituted many reforms, including
zemstvos(which were local governments), reforming education, centralizing the judicial
system, limiting the powers of the nobles. However, the Russian secret police still sent
thousands of dissents into exile and Alexander was assassinated in 1881.
• III. The unification of Italy and Germany transformed the European
balance of power and led to efforts to construct a new diplomatic order
• Cavour’s Realpolitik strategies, combined with the popular Garibaldi’s military
campaigns, led to the unification of Italy
• Bismarck employed diplomacy and industrialized warfare and weaponry and the
manipulation of democratic mechanisms to unify Germany
• After 1871, Bismarck attempted to maintain the balance of power through
alliances directed at isolating France
• Three Emperor’s League: The League of the Three Emperors was an alliance between the
German Empire, the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary, from 1873 to 1887. Chancellor
Otto von Bismarck took full charge of German foreign policy from 1870 to his dismissal in
1890.
• Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890 led to a system of mutually antagonistic alliances
and heightened international tensions
• Nationalist tensions in the Balkans drew the Great Powers into a series of crises,
leading up to World War I
• First Balkan War: This comprised actions of the Balkan League(Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and
Montenegro against the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan League won and as a result, captured
and partitioned almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire.
• KC 3.5: A variety of motives and methods led to the intensification of
European global control and increased tensions among the Great
Powers.
• The European imperial outreach of the 19th century was in some ways a
continuation of three centuries of colonization, but resulted from the economic
pressures and necessities of a maturing industrial economy.
• European still had strong economic influence in the Western hemisphere and
increasing dominance in East and Southern Asia
• European national rivalries accelerated the expansion of colonies
• Notions of global destiny and racial superiority fed the drive for empires and
technology and medicine made it possible
• “New imperialism” was promoted by interest groups including politicians,
military officers and soldiers
• As an example of a new complex phase of imperial diplomacy, the Berlin
Conference outlined procedures for the partition of Africa
• Some groups in the colonies did resist, and by 1914 anticolonial movements had
taken root within the non-European world and in Europe itself
• Imperialism led to a global exchange of cultures and people
• I. European nations were driven by economic, political, and cultural
motivations in their new imperial ventures in Asia and Africa
• European national rivalries and strategic concerns fostered imperial expansion and
competition for colonies
• Search for raw materials and markets drove Europeans to colonize Africa and Asia
• Europeans justified imperialism through an ideology of cultural/racial superiority
• II. Industrial and technological developments facilitated European control
of global empires
• Advanced weapons invariably ensured the military superiority of Europeans
• Breech-loading rifle: A firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a
chamber integral to the rear portion of a barrel. These were faster to reload than the muzzleloading rifle
• Communication and transportation technologies made conquest easier
• Advances in medicine supported European control of Africa and Asia by preserving
European lives
• Quinine: Used to prevent and treat malaria. This disease had been killing many Europeans that
went to Africa to explore/conquer.
• III. Imperial endeavors significantly affected society, diplomacy, and
culture in Europe and created resistance to foreign control abroad
• Imperialism created diplomatic tensions that strained the alliance system
• Fashoda Crisis(1898): The Fashoda Incident or Crisis was the climax of imperial territorial
disputes between Britain and France in Eastern Africa, occurring in 1898. A French expedition
to Fashoda on the White Nile river sought to gain control of the Upper Nile river basin and
thereby exclude Britain from the Sudan.
• Imperial encounters with non-European peoples influenced the styles and
subject matter of artists and writers and provoked debate about colonization
• Paul Gauguin and Pablo Picasso’s Primitivism: Primitivism is a Western art movement that
borrows visual forms from non-Western or prehistoric peoples. This borrowing was an
important development of modern art.
• Pan-German League: movement whose goal was the political unification of all people
speaking German or a Germanic language
• As non-Europeans became educated in Western values, they challenged
European imperialism through nationalist movements and/or modernization
• Japan’s Meiji Restoration: This was the period in Japan when the emperor decided to embrace
Western ways as a way to compete with the West. This period created a very strong industrial
economy in Japan.
Paul Gauguin
• Where do we come from?
What are we? Where are we
going?
• This painting is a huge,
brilliantly colored but
enigmatic work painted on
rough, heavy sackcloth. It
contains numerous human,
animal, and symbolic figures
arranged across an island
landscape. The sea and
Tahiti’s volcanic mountains
are visible in the
background. It is Paul
Gauguin’s largest painting,
and he understood it to be
his finest work.
• KC 3.6: European ideas and culture expressed a tension between objectivity
and scientific realism on one hand, and subjectivity and individual
expression on the other.
• The romantic movement of the early 19th century set the stage for later cultural
perspectives by encouraging individuals to cultivate their uniqueness and to trust
intuition and emotion
• Later artistic movements such as Impressionism, Expressionism, and Cubism, which
rested on subjective interpretations of reality, arose from the attitudes fostered by
romanticism
• In science, Darwin’s evolutionary theory raised questions about human nature, and
physicists began to challenge the uniformity and regularity of the Newtonian universe
• In 1905 Einstein’s theory of relativity underscored the position of the observer in
defining reality, while the quantum principles of randomness and probability called the
objectivity of Newtonian mechanics into question
• The emergence of psychology led to investigations of human behavior
• Freud’s investigations into the human psyche suggested the power of irrational
motivations and unconscious drives
• Many writers and artists saw humans as governed by spontaneous, irrational forces
• I. Romanticism broke with neoclassical forms of artistic representation
and with rationalism, placing more emphasis on intuition and emotion.
• Romantic artists and composers broke from classical artistic forms to emphasize
emotion, nature, individuality, intuition, the supernatural, and national histories
• Francisco Goya: Regarded as the most important Spanish artist of the late eighteenth and
early nineteenth centuries. Over the course of his long career, Goya moved from jolly and
lighthearted to deeply pessimistic and searching in his paintings, drawings, etchings, and
frescoes.
• Chopin: A Polish composer and a virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, who wrote primarily
for the solo piano.
• Romantic writers expressed similar themes while responding to the Industrial
Revolution and to various political revolutions
• Mary Shelley: Her writings, like most Romantic authors, praised imagination over reason,
emotions over logic, and intuition over science-making way for a vast body of literature of
great sensibility and passion. In their choice of heroes, also, the romantic writers replaced the
static universal types of classical 18th-century literature with more complex, idiosyncratic
characters. They became preoccupied with the genius, the hero, and the exceptional figure in
general, and a focus on his passions and inner struggles and there was an emphasis on the
examination of human personality and its moods and mental potentialities. In Shelley’s
Frankenstein, these romantic ideas are perfectly demonstrated
Goya
• Goya clearly had in mind for this royal
group the composition of Velázquez's
Meninas, which he had copied in an
engraving many years before. Like
Velázquez, he has placed himself at an
easel in the background, to one side of
the canvas. But his is a more formal royal
portrait than Velázquez's: the figures are
grouped almost crowded together in
front of the wall and there is no attempt
to create an illusion of space. The eyes of
Goya are directed towards the spectator
as if he were looking at the whole scene
in a mirror. The somewhat awkward
arrangement of the figures suggests,
however, that he composed the group in
his studio from sketches made from life.
• II. Following the revolutions of 1848, Europe turned toward a realist and
materialist worldview
• Positivism, or the philosophy that science alone provides knowledge, emphasized
the rational and scientific analysis of nature and human affairs
• Darwin provided a rational and material account of biological change and
development and inadvertently a justification for racialist theories
• Marx’s scientific socialism provided a systematic critique of capitalism
• Realist and materialist themes and attitudes influenced art and literature as
painters and writers depicted the lives of ordinary people and drew attention to
social problems
• Fyodor Dostoevsky: Focused on the difficult realities of life in Russia. In Crime and
Punishment, he focused on trying to exist in a time of poverty and social tension
• III. A new relativism in values and the loss of confidence in the
objectivity of knowledge led to modernism in intellectual and cultural
life
• Philosophy largely moved from rational interpretations of nature and human
society to an emphasis on irrationality and impulse, a view that contributed to
the belief that conflict and struggle led to progress
• Nietzsche: He proclaimed to the world that “god is dead” and attacked the religious
institutions for creating a slave mentality amongst the people. He suggested a plan for
“becoming what one is” through the cultivation of instincts and various cognitive faculties, a
plan that requires constant struggle with one’s psychological and intellectual inheritances.
• Freudian psychology provided a new account of human nature that emphasize
the role of the irrational and the struggle between the conscious and
subconscious
• Developments in the natural sciences undermined the primacy of Newton
• Planck: Many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame rests primarily on his role as
originator of the quantum theory. This theory revolutionized our understanding of atomic
and subatomic processes
• Modern art, including impressionism, post-impressionism, and cubism moved
beyond the representational to the subjective, abstract, and expressive
Claude Monet
• In the late 1860s, Claude Monet,
Pierre-Auguste Renoir and others
painted in a new style, called
Impressionism by contemporaries.
The name was first used by critics,
viewing a new exhibition held in
1874, and was directed precisely —
and derisively — at a painting by
Monet of a harbor at dawn, which
he titled Impression: Sunrise. This
painting is a striking example of the
new style.
Period 4: c. 1914 to Present
• Why 1914: World War I
• Why Present: We do not have time machines.
• Big Events: World War I, Great Depression, Rise of Totalitarianism,
Soviet Union, World War II, The Cold War
• KC 4.1: Total war and political instability in the first half of the 20th century
gave way to a polarized state order during the Cold War and eventually to
efforts at transnational union.
• European politics and diplomacy in the 20th century were defined by total war and its
consequences and a destruction in the balance of power
• Treaty of Versailles create unstable conditions
• Russia had a revolution in 1917
• Newly formed democracies after World War I were too weak to deal with the Great
Depression
• The League of Nations was unable to maintain peace
• World War II was more violent than WWI; during this war the Germany government
killed many different groups of people
• During 20th century, European imperialism and feelings of superiority reached a peak
• The second half of the 20th century would see the end of colonial, but a continuation of
economic dominance called neocolonialism
• Many people immigrated to Europe, creating many problems for the governments
• Continued KC 4.1….
• The end of World War II gave way to the start of the Cold War
• The Soviet Union and the United States – controlled international relations in
Europe
• The Cold War promoted political and economic unity in Western Europe, lead
to the establishment of a succession of ever-more comprehensive
organizations of economic cooperation
• In 1957, 6 countries formed the Common Market, which soon expanded
• Success of economic union led to the founding of the European Union in 1991
and the establishment of the euro
• Following the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, Eastern Europe countries moved
toward democracy and capitalism
• After Cold War, there was a re-emergence of nationalist movements within
states, which led to Balkan wars in Yugoslavia and tensions among the former
Soviet states.
• I. World War I, caused by a complex interaction of long and short term
factors, resulted in immense losses and disruptions for both victors and
vanquished.
• A variety of factors, M.A.I.N., turned a regional dispute in the Balkans into WWI
• New technologies confounded traditional military strategies and led to massive troop
losses
• Barbed Wire: This razor-covered wire, that protected the trenches, become a really dangerous
weapon of war. It served as a very dangerous barrier.
• Military stalemate and total war led to protest and insurrection in the belligerent
nations and eventually to revolutions that changed the international balance of power
• The war in Europe quickly spread to non-European theaters
• Armenian Genocide: In April 1915 the Ottoman government embarked upon the systematic
decimation of its civilian Armenian population. The persecutions continued with varying intensity
until 1923 when the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist and was replaced by the Republic of Turkey.
The Armenian population of the Ottoman state was reported at about two million in 1915. An
estimated one million had perished by 1918, while hundreds of thousands had become homeless
and stateless refugees. By 1923 virtually the entire Armenian population of Anatolian Turkey had
disappeared.
• The relationship of Europe to the world shifted significantly with the globalization of
the conflict, the emergence of the United States as a world power, and the overthrow
of European empires
• II. The conflicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted
diplomatic idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a
settlement that satisfied few
• Wilsonian idealism clashed with postwar realities. Democratic states emerged
from former empires and eventually succumbed to significant crises.
• Poland: After World War I, Poland became independent after over 100 years of being ruled
by the countries around them. Poland attempted to form a democracy, but that government
was overthrown by Józef Klemens Piłsudski. He ruled the country as an authoritarian until
Poland was partitioned again at the start of WWII.
• The League of Nations, created to prevent future wars, was weakened from the
outset by the nonparticipation of major powers(US, GB, and USSR)
• Versailles settlement, particularly its provisions on the assignment of guilt and
reparations of war, hindered the German Weimar Republic’s ability to establish
a stable and legitimate political and economic system.
• III. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and
the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II,
presenting a grave challenge to European civilizations.
• French and British fears of another war, American isolationism, and the deep distrust
between Western democratic, capitalist nations, and the communist Soviet Union
allowed fascist states to rearm and expand
• Munich Agreement and its violation: In 1938, a settlement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation
of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers,
for which a new territorial designation "Sudetenland" was coined. This was supposed to be
Hitler’s last territorial demand, but he soon conquered Czechoslovakia
• Germany’s Blitzkrieg warfare in Europe, combined with Japan’s attacks in Asia and the
Pacific, brought the Axis powers early victories.
• American and British industrial, scientific, and technological power and the all-out
military commitment of the USSR contributed critically to Allied victories.
• Fueled by racism and anti-Semitism, Nazi Germany, with the cooperation of some other
Axis powers and collaborationist governments, sought to establish a “new racial order
in Europe, which culminated with the Holocaust
• Wannsee Conference: On January, 20, 1942, Reinhard Heydrich, Himmler's second in command of
the SS, convened the Wannsee Conference in Berlin with 15 top Nazi bureaucrats to coordinate
the Final Solution (Endlösung) in which the Nazis would attempt to exterminate the entire Jewish
population of Europe, an estimated 11 million persons.
• IV. As World War II ended, a Cold War between the liberal democratic West
and the communist East began, lasting nearly half a century
• Despite efforts to maintain international cooperation through the newly created United
Nations, deep-seated tensions between the USSR and the West led to the division of
Europe, which was referred to in the West as the Iron Curtain
• The Cold War played out on a global stage and involved propaganda campaigns; covert
actions; limited “hot wars” in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean; and an
arms race, with the threat of a nuclear war
• The Yom Kippur War: On October 6, 1973, hoping to win back territory lost to Israel during the
third Arab-Israeli war, in 1967, Egyptian and Syrian forces launched a coordinated attack against
Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish calendar. Taking the Israeli Defense Forces by
surprise, Egyptian troops swept deep into the Sinai Peninsula, while Syria struggled to throw
occupying Israeli troops out of the Golan Heights. Israel counterattacked and recaptured the Golan
Heights. A cease-fire went into effect on October 25, 1973.
• The US exerted a strong military, political, and economic influence in Western Europe,
leading to the creation of world monetary and trade systems and NATO
• International Monetary Fund: 189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation,
secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable
economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.
• Countries east of the Iron Curtain came under the domination of the Soviet Union within
the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance(COMECON) and the Warsaw Pact
• The collapse of the USSR in 1991 ended and led to establishment of capitalist economies
throughout Eastern Europe. Germany was reunited, the Czechs and the Slovaks parted,
Yugoslavia dissolved, and the European Union expanded.
• V. In response to the destructive impact of two world wars, European
nations began to set aside nationalism in favor of economic and political
integration, forming a series of transnational unions that grew in size
and scope over the second half of the 20th century.
• European Coal and Steel Community, envisioned as a means to spur postwar
economic recovery, developed in the European Economic Community and the
European Union, this led to efforts to establish a shared European identity
• One of the major continuing challenges to countries in the EU is balancing
national sovereignty with the responsibilities of membership in an economic and
political union
• The creation of the Euro: A common European currency was formed in 1999. Many countries
parted with their national currency and adopted the Euro.
• VI. Nationalist and separatist movements, along with ethnic conflict and
ethnic cleansing, periodically disrupted the post-WWII peace
• Nationalist Violence: Chechnya: The people in Chechnya wanted independence from
Russia and some groups resorted to violence to try and make this happen.
• Separatist Movements: Basque(ETA): For four decades, the armed organization Eta
has waged a bloody campaign for independence for the seven regions in northern
Spain and south-west France that Basque separatists claim as their own.
• Ethnic Cleansing: Bosnian Muslims: In April 1992, the government of the Yugoslav
republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina declared its independence from Yugoslavia. Over
the next several years, Bosnian Serb forces, with the backing of the Serb-dominated
Yugoslav army, targeted both Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) and Croatian civilians for
atrocious crimes resulting in the deaths of some 100,000 people (80 percent
Bosniak) by 1995. It was the worst act of genocide since the Nazi regime’s
destruction of some 6 million European Jews during World War II.
• VII. The process of decolonization occurred over the course of the century with
varying degrees of cooperation, interference, or resistance from European
imperialist states.
• Wilson’s principle of national self-determination raised expectations in the non-European
world for freedom from colonial domination – expectations that led to international
instability
• The League of Nations distributed former German and Ottoman possessions to France
and GB through the mandate system, thereby altering the imperial balance of power and
creating a strategic interest in the Middle East and its oil
• Mandate Territories: Lebanon and Syria: Officially the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon
was a League of Nations mandate founded after the First World War and the partitioning of the
Ottoman Empire. During the two years that followed the end of the war in 1918, and in accordance
with the Sykes-Picot Agreement that was signed between Britain and France during the war, the
British held control of most Ottoman Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and the southern part of the
Ottoman Syria (Palestine and Jordan), while the French controlled the rest of Ottoman Syria
(modern Syria, Lebanon, Alexandretta and other portions of southeastern Turkey).
• Despite indigenous nationalist movements, independence for many African and Asian
territories was delayed until the mid- and even late 20th century by the imperial powers’
reluctance to relinquish control, threats of interference from other nations, unstable
economic and political systems, and Cold War strategic alignments
• Indian National Congress: From its foundation on 28 December 1885 by A.O.Hume a retired British
officer until the time of independence of India on 15 August 1947, the Indian National Congress
was considered to be the largest and most prominent Indian public organization, and central and
defining influence of the Indian Independence Movement.
• KC 4.2: The stresses of economic collapse and total war engendered internal
conflicts within European states and created conflicting conceptions of the
relationship between the individual and the state, as demonstrated in the
ideological battle between liberal democracy, communism, and fascism.
• During WWI, states increased the degree and scope of their authority. They centralized
power and controlled information and used propaganda. At the end of the war, distrust
from the people led to the fall of four empires; the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman,
and Russian.
• The democratic nations that arose in their place lacked a democratic tradition and
suffered from weak economies and ethnic tensions
• Russia experienced a civil war and the creation of a new state(USSR)
• In Italy and Germany, charismatic leaders led to fascist movements to power, seizing
control of the post-WWI government and fighting against the Treaty of Versailles
• In the post-WWII period, governments expanded social services and control of the
economy
• In the 1990s, there was a collapse of communism and the fall of the Soviet Union, but the
post-Soviet Union world was not simply for easier side of Europe
• I. The Russian Revolution created a regime based on Marxist-Leninist theory
• In Russia, WWI exacerbated long-term problems of political stagnation, social
inequality, incomplete industrialization, and food and land distribution, all while
creating support for revolutionary change
• Petrograd Soviet: The February Revolution was the first of two revolutions in Russia in 1917. It was
centered on Petrograd, then Russian capital, on Women's Day in March. The revolution was
confined to the capital and its vicinity, and lasted less than a week.
• Military and worker insurrections, aided by the revived the Soviets, undermined the
Provisional Government and set the stage for Lenin’s long-planned revolution
• This led to a prolonged civil war, but Lenin prevailed
• In order to improve economic performance, Lenin comprised with free-market
principles under the New Economic Policy, but Stalin abandoned those reforms
• Collectivization: The Soviet Union ended the private ownership of agricultural
• Stalin’s economic modernization came at a high price, including the liquidation of the
kulaks, famine in the Ukraine, purges of political rivals, unequal burdens placed on
women, and the establishment of an oppressive political system
• Gulags: The term “ GULAG ” is an acronym for the Soviet bureaucratic institution, Glavnoe
Upravlenie ispravitel'no-trudovykh LAGerei (Main Administration of Corrective Labor Camps), that
operated the Soviet system of forced labor camps in the Stalin era.
• II. The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre-World War I era, gained popularity in an
environment of postwar bitterness, the rise of communism, uncertain transitions to
democracy, and economic instability.
• Fascists used propaganda as a tool to build support and attack democracy
• Mussolini and Hitler rose to power by exploiting postwar bitterness and economic instability, using
terror and manipulation
• Franco’s alliance with Italian and German fascists in the Spanish Civil War led him to victory
• After failures of democracy, authoritarians took over in Central and Eastern Europe
• Romania: From 1918 to 1938, it was a liberal constitution monarchy, but the economic problems and problems with
national groups led to the establishment of a dictatorship
• III. The Great Depression, caused by weaknesses in international trade and monetary
theories and practices, undermined Western European democracies and fomented radical
political responses throughout Europe
• World War I debt, nationalistic tariff policies, depreciated currencies, disrupted trade patterns, and
speculation created weaknesses in economies worldwide
• Dependence on post-WWI American capital led to economic collapse after the 1929 stock mark crash
• Western democracies failed to overcome the Great Depression and were weakened by extremist
movements
• Keynesianism in Britain: This idea advocated a strong governmental management of the economy and a high level of
social services
• Popular Fronts in France and Spain: The Popular Front initiatives of the 1930s in Spain and France were
parliamentary experiments in social and economic reform conceived, against a background of ever-increasing Fascist
aggression in Europe, as a means of checking political reaction in the domestic arena.
• IV. Postwar economic growth supported an increase in welfare benefits; however,
subsequent economic stagnation led to criticism and limitation of the welfare state.
• Marshall Plan funds financed an extensive reconstruction of industry and infrastructure and
stimulated an extended period of growth in Western and Central Europe, often referred to as an
“economic miracle”, which increased the economic and cultural importance of consumerism.
• The expansion of cradle-to-grave social welfare programs in the aftermath of WWII, accompanied by
high taxes became a contentious domestic issue
• V. Eastern European nations were defined by their relationship with the Soviet Union,
which oscillated between repression and limited reform, until Mikhail Gorbachev’s
policies led to the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe and the fall of
the Soviet Union
• Central and Eastern European nations within the Soviet bloc followed an economic model based on
central planning, extensive social welfare, and specialized production among bloc members
• After 1956, Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization policies failed to meet their economic goals and prompted
revolts in Eastern Europe
• Following a long period of stagnation, Gorbachev’s perestroika and glasnost, failed to stave off the
collapse of the Soviet Union
• The rise of new nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe brought peaceful revolution in most
countries but resulted in war and genocide in the Balkans and instability in some formers Soviet
republics.
• KC 4.3: During the 20th century, diverse intellectual and cultural
movements questioned the existence of object knowledge, the ability
of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of religion in determining
moral standards.
• Trend of 20th century was from optimistic view of science and technology to the
formation of skepticism that doubted the possibility of objective knowledge and
of progress.
• Existentialism, postmodernism, and renewed religiosity challenged the perceived
dogmatism of positivist science
• While society became increasingly secular, religion continued to play a role
• After WWI, new discoveries and theories in physics challenged the certainities of
a Newtonian universe
• By the mid-20th, dramatic new medical technologies prolonged life
• Dangers of scientific and technological achievements were demonstrated with
devastating weaponry
• The art world was defined by experimentation and subjectivity, which asserted
the independence of visual arts from realism
• I. The widely held belief in progress characteristic of much of 19th century thought
began to break down before WWI; the experience of war intensified a sense of
anxiety that permeated many facets of thought and culture, giving way by the
century’s end to a plurality of intellectual frameworks.
• When WWI began, Europeans were confident in the ability of science and technology to
address human needs and problems
• The effects of world war and economic depression undermined this confidence
• II. Science and technology yielded impressive material benefits but also caused
immense destruction and posed challenges to objective knowledge
• The challenge to Newtonian universe opened the door to uncertainty in other fields
• Physicists: Niels Bohr: A Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic
structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.
• Medical theories and technologies extended life but posed social and moral questions that
eluded consensus and crossed religious, political, and philosophical perspectives
• Eugenics: the study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a
human population, especially by such means as discouraging reproduction by persons having genetic
defects or presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits (negative eugenics) or encouraging
reproduction by persons presumed to have inheritable desirable traits (positive eugenics)
• Military technologies made possible industrialized warfare, genocide, nuclear proliferation,
and the risk of nuclear war
• III. Organized religion continued to play a role in European social and
cultural life despite the challenges of military and ideological conflict,
modern secularism, and rapid social changes.
• Totalitarianism and communism in Central and Eastern Europe brought mixed
responses from the Christian churches
• Christian responses to totalitarianism: Pope John Paul II: He was very active in trying to end
the oppressive governments in eastern Europe, especially in Poland.
• Reform in the Catholic Church found expression in the Second Vatican Council,
which redefined the Church’s dogma and practices and started to redefine its
relations with other religious communities
• Increased immigration into Europe altered Europe’s religious makeup, causing
debate and conflict over the role of religion in social and political life
• IV. During the 20th century, the arts were defined by experimentation, selfexpression, subjectivity, and the increasing influence of the United States in both
elite and popular culture.
• New movements in the visual arts, architecture, and music demolished existing aesthetic
standards, explored subconscious and subjective states, and satirized Western society and its
values
• Visual Arts: Dadaism: Dada was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zürich, Switzerland. It
arose as a reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced
by other avant-garde movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Expressionism - its output was
wildly diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting, and collage.
Dada's aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a powerful
influence on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which
generated their own groups. The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrealism.
• Architectural Movements: Bauhaus: The German architect Walter Gropius (1833 to 1969), who became a
US citizen in 1944, founded the Bauhaus Movement as a school of arts in Weimar, the city of Goethe. What
was revolutionary about his concept was the combination of a wide variety of arts – architecture, sculpture
and painting – with crafts and engineering. It was the general objective to create a visionary and utopian
craft guild that would combine beauty with usefulness.
• Music: Compositions of Igor Stravinsky: One of music's truly epochal innovators; no other composer of the
twentieth century exerted such a pervasive influence or dominated his art in the way that Stravinsky did
during his seven-decade musical career. Aside from purely technical considerations such as rhythm and
harmony, the most important hallmark of Stravinsky’s style is, indeed, its changing face. Emerging from
the spirit of late Russian nationalism and ending his career with a thorny, individual language steeped in
twelve-tone principles, Stravinsky assumed a number of aesthetic guises throughout the course of his
development while always retaining a distinctive, essential identity.
Dada
Bauhaus Architecture
• IV. Continued arts of the 20th century….
• Throughout the century, a number of writers challenged traditional literary
conventions, questioned Western values, and addressed controversial social and
political issues.
• Franz Kafka: A German-language writer of novels and short stories who is widely regarded
as one of the major figures of the 20th century literature. His work fuses elements of realism
and the fantastic, typically features isolated protagonists faced by bizarre or surrealistic
predicaments and incomprehensible social-bureaucratic powers, and has been interpreted
as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity.
• Increased imports of United States technology and popular culture after World
War II generated both enthusiasm and criticism
• KC 4.4: Demographic changes, economic growth, total war, disruptions
of traditional social patterns, and competing definitions of freedom and
justice altered the experiences of everyday life.
• The disruptions of two total wars, the reduction of barriers to migration within
Europe because of economic integration, globalization, and the arrival of new
permanent residents from outside of Europe changed the everyday lives of
Europeans in significant ways.
• More people living in cities than rural communities
• Standard of living went up, populations went down, so governments encouraged childbirth
with better child care and created large-scale guest-worker programs
• New citizens to Europe created challenges to European identity and a backlash
against groups that were viewed as outsiders
• By the 1960’s environmental problems caused by industrialization was causing
many problems and students began to protest against institutional authority
• Feminists movements gained increased participation in politics, yet social
patterns still hindered gender equality
• In the 21st century, Europeans continued to wrestle with issues of social justice
and how to define European identity.
• I. The 20th century was characterized by large-scale suffering brought on
by warfare and genocide as well as tremendous improvements in the
standard of living.
• WWI created a “lost generation,” fostered disillusionment and cynicism,
transformed the lives of women, and democratic societies.
• WWII destroyed a generation of Russian and German men, virtually destroyed
European Jews
• Mass production, new food technology, and industrial efficiency increased
disposable income and create a consumer culture in which greater domestic
comforts were available.
• New communication and transportation improved connections and contributed
to globalization
• Telephone: Revolutionized the way that people communicated over long distances and made
connects possible all over the world.
• II. The lives of women were defined by family and work responsibilities, economic
changes, and feminism.
• During the world wars, women became more involved in military and political mobilization as
well as in economic production
• In Western Europe through the efforts of feminists, and in Eastern Europe and the Soviet
Union through government policy, women finally gained the vote, more education and
careers, but social inequalities still existed.
• Second-wave feminism: Activity that first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually
spread throughout the Western world and beyond. In the United States the movement lasted through
the early 1980s and continued to demand greater equality for women
• Economic recovery after WWII led to a “baby boom”, often promoted by governments
• Subsidies for large families: To encourage higher birth rates, some governments offered money to
families with a lot of children
• New modes of marriage, partnership, motherhood, divorce, and reproduction gave women
more options in their personal lives
• The pill: The birth control pill allowed women to decided when they would have children and gave them
the ability to postpone child birth after they finished college and had a job.
• Women attained high political office and increased their representation in legislative bodies in
many nations.
• Margaret Thatcher of Great Britain: A British stateswoman and politician who was the Prime Minister of
the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990.
• III. New voices gained prominence in political, intellectual, and social
discourse.
• Green parties in Western and Central Europe challenged consumerism, urged
sustainable development, and, by the late 20th century, cautioned against globalization
• Gay and lesbian movements worked for expanded civil rights, obtaining in some
nations the right to from civil partnerships with full legal benefits or to marry
• Intellectuals and youth reacted against perceived bourgeois materialism and
decadence, most significantly with the revolts of 1968.
• Economic growth of the 1950s and 1960s led to guest workers from southern Europe,
Asia, and Africa immigrated to Western and Central Europe; however, after the
economic downturn of the 1970s, these works and families often became targets of
anti-immigrant agitation and extreme nationalist political parties
• French National Front: This is a socially conservative, nationalistic political party in France. Its major
policies include economic protectionism, a zero tolerance approach to law and order issues, and
opposition to immigration.