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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
ENG 114/LL 100: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC
COURSE IN
LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
Published
UNIT: 3
2009©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in
any form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior
permission in writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate,
University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-
iii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
P R E F A C E
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can
do most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit
is different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers
have made efforts to make the study material rich enough but
learners need to do some extra reading for further enrichment of
the knowledge required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities
and where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to
guide the selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course
writers and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no
doubt help in improving access to University education.
iv
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
Professor M. M. Daura
Ag Vice-Chancellor
v
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify
your
study.
In
each
topic
of
the
unit,
we
have
introduction, objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment
exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will
be available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center
expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read
further you could supplement the study with more information
from the list of references and suggested readings available in the
study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can
help you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and
understood the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the
end of the study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the
center. You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In
addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination,
which will be added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
vii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
In this study unit you will be introduced to Linguistics and the basic concepts
(theories, models, branches in linguistics). It is inevitable that concepts will be dealt
with summarily but satisfactorily for a better foundation for the interrelating of more
specialised areas at higher levels. The purpose is to acquaint you with the various
approaches to language study. The course has been divided into four (4) major topics
viz; 1. what is Linguistics, 2. what are theories and models 3. branches in linguistics
and finally 4. Language.
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ENG. 114/LL 100: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN
LINGUISTICS_UNITS: 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
PREFACE
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THE FORM OF LANGUAGE
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TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR MODEL -
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HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
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INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
1
TOPIC:
1.
3
2.
THEORIES AND MODELS
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3.
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4.
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TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE
GRAMMAR (TGG)
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5.
SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR
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6.
BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS
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7.
ENGLISH
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AND
PHONOLOGY
25
SYNTAX, MORPHOLOGY, SEMANTICS
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9.
PHONETICS
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LANGUAGE
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SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
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TOPIC 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
1.0.
TOPIC:
THE FORM OF LANGUAGE
1.1.
INTRODUCTION -
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1.2.
OBJECTIVES
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1.3.
IN-TEXT
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LINGUISTICS
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1.3.2
EXPLICITNESS
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1.3.3
SYSTEMATICITY
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1.3.4
OBJECTIVITY
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1.4.
SUMMARY -
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1.5.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE -
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1.6
REFERENCE
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1.7
SUGGESTED READING
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1.0. TOPIC:
UNIT: 3
LINGUISTICS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to
i.
Tell what linguistics is
ii.
Tell what area of human search for knowledge is linguistics attached.
1.3
IN-TEXT:
To do this course without much ambiguity, and to maintain a high level of
clarity we chose to adapt the definition method alongside other principles of
developing details, by defining some technical terms/vocabulary as we present
our materials on the course. This is to help learners, from harbouring the
view that “... Modern Linguistic terminology or ‘jargon’ is unnecessarily
complex” (Lyons 1968:1).
1.3.1
LINGUISTICS
Language is Communication
Communication is the use of signs to convey message. Linguistics is the
Scientific study of language. By ‘Scientific’ study of language we mean the
“investigation by means of controlled and empirical, verifiable observations
with reference to some general theory of language structure” (Lyons 1968).
What this means is that Linguistics launched out to study the human language
employing scientific methods to describe language with a view to
understanding the nature of language and how it works. Scholars in
Linguistics are linguists but: not the opinion held by different persons on the
concept, that; a linguist is a person who speaks many languages. Note that a
language teacher may not necessarily be a linguist; an interpreter of language at
meetings or organisations is not a linguist, neither is anybody who corrects
language speech of another, a linguist, as had been the opinion by different
persons on the concept linguist. Science study builds on its past, linguistics
interestingly too, builds on its past (Traditional Grammar). It challenges and
refutes traditional grammar doctrines but develops and reformulates them. In
addition, linguistics has discrete units, the basis for which description
(analysis) will take off, as with all Scientific studies. A proper handling of
scientific studies will involve the following;
1.
explicitness
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2.
3.
UNIT: 3
systematicity
objectivity
1.3.2
EXPLICITNESS:
In general, the procedure of modern linguistics takes the form of observation,
experimentation, formation of hypothesis and formation of law, exact
description of data, for instance, a clear formulation and presentation of
theory without any ambiguity.
1.3.3
SYSTEMATICITY:
A scientific study of language must be systematic, there should be a logical
arrangement(s)/organisation of research items.
For instance, a
description/analysis that involves the ‘sentence’ must take the following
sequence; morpheme - word - group - clause - sentence or vice-versa,
depending on whether we intend to start our analysis with the smallest unit of
grammar
(morpheme), or
SENTENCE
the
largest
unit
(sentence). The
CLAUSE
rank order in the
grammatical
units
recognises
the
GROUP
sentence at the apex,
while the morpheme is
WORD
the smallest indivisible unit of
thought, as diagrammed below:
MORPHEME
Every scientific research has to be
conducted step
by step.
Hierarchy of Grammatical Units
1.3.4
OBJECTIVITY:
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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
In conducting any scientific research, we must be objective and not subjective.
This means that no result of any research must be on assumption, there must
not be personal interest, no personal influence, no biasness, but everything is
based strictly on the available data.
1.4
SUMMARY
This introductory topic is to teach you what linguistics is and who linguistics
is.
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE:
1.
What qualifies linguistics as a science?
1.6
REFERENCES
Crystal (1971) Linguistics Harmondsworth, Penguin.
Lyons, J. (1977) Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics Cambridge CUP.
1.7
SUGGESTED READING
Aitcheson, Jean (1987) Teach Yourself Linguistics. New York, Rinehart.
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TOPIC 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
THEORIES AND MODELS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
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2.2
OBJECTIVES
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2.3
IN-TEXT
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2.3.1
EXAMPLES OF THEORIES
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2.3.2
MODELS
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SUMMARY
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2.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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2.6
REFERENCES
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2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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2.0
THEORIES AND MODELS IN LINGUISTICS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Linguistics operates with theories and models. A theory is a statement or
group of statements established by reasoned argument based on known facts,
meant to explain a particular fact(s) or event(s). Crystal (1971) says “a theory
is a detailed and systematic analysis constructed in order to have visualised
aspects of the structure or functions of language that are not directly
observable and whose significance might otherwise be lost”.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Know and make out the difference between theories and models.
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1
EXAMPLE OF A THEORY
Behaviourism:
Learning as a habit formation
The behaviourist theory is a theory of learning, based mainly on the
work of Pavlov in the Soviet Union and of Skinner in the United
States. This simple but powerful theory says that learning is a
mechanical process of habit formation and proceeds by means of the
frequent reinforcement of a stimulus - response sequence. Other
theories of learning can be:
Mentalism: thinking as a rule - governed activity
Cognitive: Learners as thinking being.
2.3.2
MODELS
A model, on the other hand, according to Crystal (1971), is a detailed and
systematic analogy constructed in order to help visualize some aspects of the
structure or function of a language that are not directly observable. In other
words, model serves as a perfect example or pattern worthy to be followed or
copied. A linguistic model is the concept that interlinks the concept of a
theory and the highly specified concept of hypothesis i.e., Linguistic model is
the intermediary between the general concept of a theory and hypothesis.
2.4
SUMMARY
Theories and models have been defined based on the perspective of reknown
linguists.
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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
2.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Write short notes on theories and models.
2.6
REFERENCES
UNIT: 3
Robins, R. H. (1980) General Linguistics: An introduction survey 3rd ed. London.
Longman.
2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Halliday, MAK (1985) An introduction to Functional Grammar. London. Edward
Arnold.
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UNIT: 3
TOPIC 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0
TOPIC:
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR MODEL -
3.1
INTRODUCTION
3.2
OBJECTIVES
3.3
IN-TEXT
3.4
SUMMARY
3.5
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3.6
REFERENCES
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3.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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UNIT: 3
3.0
TOPIC:
3.1
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR
3.2
OBJECTIVES
This topic should make you:
i.
appreciate the benefits of traditional grammar
ii.
assess the inadequacies in the traditional grammar model as it relates to
syntax (morphology inclusive in this sense of syntax) and other areas in
linguistics.
3.3
IN-TEXT
Traditional Grammar stretches back in time 2000 years. It is the model that
did not result from any systematic study of language (Allen & Corder, 1975).
Traditional Grammar is fashioned after the classical languages Greek and
Latin which date back to c. 4th century B. C. and it includes most of the basic
concepts which still constitute a layman’s idea of grammar. The layman holds
the view that, structurally, a sentence is composed of subject and verb. Latin
was the language largely studied in the medieval times for its grammar,
rhetorics and literature. Latin is relatively more inflectional than the English
& French languages. However, both English and French were modelled after
Latin in context and form with little or no regards for the differences that exist
between these languages. Traditional Grammar pays little or no attention to
the complexity & flexibility of the English language. For instance, the
definition of a sentence as consisting of only a ‘subject’ and a ‘verb’ makes the
model unusual in present day usage. Consider the sentences below, for
instance:
1.
2.
3.
4.
TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR MODEL
///Audu/ was watching the Television when his wife came in///
///The man/ arrived///
///After Mariam/answered all the questions she left the hall///
///She/ left hurriedly because the man accused her///
To go by Traditional Grammar description, of the above sentences, ‘Audu’,
‘The man’, ‘After Mariam’ and ‘She’ are considered subjects while the other
items that follow each of these ‘subjects’ are verbs.
This description can be appropriate with sentence ‘b’ above but not the rest,
besides, the category of the elements could have been either ‘Subject and
Predicator’ or ‘Noun and Verb’.
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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
Traditional Grammarians like Dionysius Thrax, classified the words of the
Greek language into eight (8) known as parts of speech: - Noun, Verb,
Pronoun, Adverbs, Adjectives, Conjunctions, Preposition, Interjection. These
traditional categories were taken over by prescriptive grammarians like John
Wallis, Robert Lowth and Lindley Murray, thus helping to preserve an
unbroken tradition of grammatical analysis.
In addition, Traditional Grammar is prescriptive, that is, its usage
(spoken/written) is rule governed. A grammar should be descriptive but not
prescriptive. When a grammar is descriptive, it describes how people actually
use the language but prescriptive grammar prescribes how people should use
it. The aims and methods of Traditional grammar have been widely criticised
in recent years. Linguistics promotes one other of more fashionable models
with less complexity and rigidity.
However, the Traditional grammar handbook provides good terms which
most of us use in learning to talk about our own language and which educated
people continue to find serviceable throughout their lives. It contains a great
deal of materials which can be expected to appear with only slight
modifications in the description of language.
Modern structural Linguistics began with the works of the great Swiss scholar
Ferdinand de Saussure A Course in General Linguistics in 1915, which was
published posthumously, that is, after his death. Before then there was
nothing like a single homogeneous traditional approach to grammar (Crystal
1971). It is modern linguistics that has in certain respects advanced beyond
Traditional grammar in its attempt to construct a general theory of language
structure. Modern structural linguistics went beyond Traditional Grammar
definition of sentence which says it is composed of ‘subject’ and ‘verb’, since it
observes that what exists after the subject may not be just a ‘verb’. It has
reformulated the notion to cater for the inadequacies found in traditional
grammar.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENT : Discuss the inadequacies and the benefits of
Traditional Grammar in the modern world of language study.
3.4
3.5
3.6
SUMMARY
Traditional grammar made valuable contributions to studies in contemporary
languages despite its inadequacies.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
1.
Discuss the inadequacies and the benefits of traditional grammar in the
modern world of language study.
REFERENCES
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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
3.7
UNIT: 3
Allen and Corder (1975) Introducing Applied Linguistics. Harmandsworth.
Penguin.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Lyons, J. (1977) Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. cup.
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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
UNIT: 3
TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC:
TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE
GRAMMAR (TGG)
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4.1
INTRODUCTION
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4.2
OBJECTIVE
S
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4.3
IN-TEXT
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4.4
SUMMARY
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4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
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4.6
REFERENCES
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4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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4.0
TOPIC:
TRANSFORMATIONAL
UNIT: 3
GENERATIVE
GRAMMAR (TGG)
4.1
INTRODUCTION
A grammar is considered to comprise a number of components, in which
rules of a similar formal nature are grouped together ..... In phrase structure
the assumed largest unit of grammar, the sentence (written S) is progressively
expanded by the application of rules, into strings (structures) of smaller units,
terminating with a combination of lexical items and grammatical elements,
Robins, R. H. (1980).
4.2
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
generate sentences or form words applying transforms to them.
4.3
IN-TEXT
Syntax is concerned with the relationship of words in sentences, the ways in
which they are put together to form sentences. Transformational Generative
Grammar (TGG) is Chomsky’s Grammar. It primarily deals with the ideal
speaker-listener in a homogeneous speech community who knows his
language very well and is unaffected by any grammatical irrelevant condition
such as memory limitations. TGG is about a perfect Grammar and about a
native speaker which in reality rarely exists.
We begin by making fundamental distinction between two kinds of sentences:
kernel sentences and transforms. Kernel sentences are basic elementary
sentences of the language, the shift from which all else is made. Transforms
are the ‘all else’ structured down from the kernel to produce all the
complications of English sentences. Chomsky proposes that a native speaker
possesses two (2) types of knowledge, namely, Competence and Performance.
Competence describes the speaker’s knowledge of his language and this
knowledge is internalised within the speaker. That means it is inborn in us.
Competence consists of a set of rules and there are rules for combining words
to form sentences, there are rules for the correct pronunciation, there are rules
for combining sentences into discourse. That means are rules for everything
and once a person uses these rules correctly, he is using competence.
Performance is the actual use of the language in a particular situation.
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UNIT: 3
According to Chomsky, Competence is innate (inborn) and Performance is
convenience and because it is convenience, Chomsky’s data is weightier on
Competence than on performance. Chomsky is very much particular about
Competence rules, explaining that man already possesses the language
acquisition device (LAD).
For the grammar of a language to be adequate it must be able to generate all
and only the grammatical sentences of that language. Chomsky believes that
man uses finite (limited) set of rules to generate infinite (unlimited) number of
sentences.
An English kernel sentence consists of a noun phrase (NP) followed by verb
phrase (VP). We indicate this thus: S NP + VP
The arrow ( ) means ‘consists of or rewrite as: The ‘S’, ‘NP’ and ‘VP’ are
category symbols referring to particular forms or structures. Most structures
have several possible uses or functions. The terms Subject and Predicate refer
to functions. The subject function is one possible use of an NP. The
Predicate function is one possible use of a VP. In other words, Subject and
Predicate are functional terms while Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase are
grammatical categories. The terms Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase are used
here to include single words as well as groups of words.
The kernel is the part of language that is basic and fundamental. It is the heart
of the grammar, the centre of the language. All other structures of English
can be thought of as deriving from this kernel. All the more complicated
sentences of English are derivations from, or transformations of the Kterminal string.
The sentence ‘The girl ate the food’ can be generated thus:
The girls ate the food
Noun phrase
The girl
Art
The
N
girl
verb phrase
ate the food
VP
ate
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
NP
the food
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ENG 114/LL 100 – INTRODUCTION TO BASIC COURSE IN LINGUISTICS
Art
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UNIT: 3
N
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UNIT: 3
TGG is divided into three components,
1.
Syntactic component - This has to do with structure.
2.
Semantic components deals with meaning. It assigns semantic
interpretation to the deep structure generated by the base
component.
3.
Phonological component assigns phonetic interpretation/form.
The syntactic components has (2) two sub-components
1. Phrase Structure (PS rules)
2. lexical (rules)
THE PHRASE structure rules are finite (limited) rules that generate infinite
(unlimited) sentences. These rules are innate (inborn) in man. It is left for the
user to use the set of rules depending on the situation and probably the age
(maturity) of the speaker.
Example of phrase - structural sentence
S
NP +
VP
VP
Vp
+
NP
NP
Det +
N
Vb
V
+
aux
Sentence
NP
The Girl
Art
VP
will eat the food
N
VP
will eat
aux
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
the
V
art
NP
food
N
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UNIT: 3
LEXICAL RULES OR LEXICON: This is a complete listing of all the lexical
items of the language together with the lexical insertion rules. The lexical
insertion rules are rules that guide our selection of lexical items. The lexical
items are marked with features: example
man
+ adult
+ male
+ singular
+ human
Chomsky’s Transformational Generative Grammar model aligns more with
the mentalist theory because its objective is to discover and understand rules
that underlie language behaviour.
4.4
SUMMARY
Description of sentences/words is framed in terms of sequentially applied
rules often called “rewrite rules” in other words, TGG is a “grammar or rules”
4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
“But at least in all but the simplest sentences, phrase structure rules are
inadequate for a full structural exposition” - Discuss.
4.6
REFERENCES
Robins, R. H. (1980) General Linguistics: Introductory survey 3rd ed. London.
Longman.
4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Lyons, J. (1968) Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge CUP.
Bach, E. (1964) An introduction to Transformational Grammars. N. Y. Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic Structures. The Hague. Mauton.
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TOPIC 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0
TOPIC:
SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR
5.1
SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR
5.2
OBJECTIVES
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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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5.0
TOPIC:
SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR
5.1
SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR
5.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
understudy a text on the basis of linguistics or social context.
5.3
IN-TEXT
Systemic grammar is M. A. K. Halliday’s theory of language. It was first
christened ‘scale and category’ grammar. Halliday’s model is based on the
teachings of the British Linguist: J. R. Firth. His main idea of grammar is that
language has two (2) perspectives:1.
The Social and
2.
The Linguistic Perspectives
LANGUAGE
Linguistic Context
Social Context
Halliday believes that a language must be described according to the linguistic
or the social context. He holds the view that whatever one says in language
must have a linguistic or social description. There are no rigid rules in
systemic grammar, as are found in TGG. Instead language is a matter of
choice, in a ‘rank’ and ‘scale’
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GRAMMATICAL RANK SCALE
most
grammatical
more
grammatical
GRAMMATICAL
Less
grammatical
Least
grammatical
Systemic grammar is mainly concerned with communication and not
correctness of form. This does not mean that systemic grammar condones or
permits ungrammaticality. The systemic grammar model for a clause (simple
sentence) is the structure, with the elements (S) P(C) (A),
(S)
Subject
‘P’
Predicator
(C)
Complement
(A)
Adjunct
All other elements (S,C,A) save ‘P’ are enclosed in bracket, which follows that
when generating sentence(s), one can leave out these optional elements and
still generate grammatical sentences. In other words, ‘P’ in a clause is
obligatory while the others are elective. The ‘S’ which stands for ‘subject’ is a
functinoal term, and items that can function under the ‘S’ can be Noun,
Pronoun or Nominal.
E.g. MUSA scored 194 points in the JAMB examination. - NOUN
HE scored 194 points in the JAMB examination. - PRONOUN
MY NINETEEN YEAR OLD NEPHEW MUSA scored 194 points
in the JAMB examination. - NOMINAL
The ‘P’ Predicator, another functional term, has items as verbs or verb +
particle functioning under it.
E.g. Nana TRAVELLED home - VERB
The bird FLEW OFF - VERB + PARTICLE
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Complement: The items that function under complement are:, Noun,
Pronoun, Nominals and Adjectives.
E.g. I assisted AUDU.
She assisted THE MAN WITH THE RED CAP.
She is BEAUTIFUL.
ADJUNCT: Items that function under the adjunct are adverbs, prepositional phrase.
E.g. He occasionally sits under a tree
ADVERB
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
‘Subject’ in a clause is the actor, Predicator indicates the action or state.
Complement completes or receives the action.
Adjunct describes the state of the verb
These elements (S) P (C)A) can be used to generate numerous sentences in
English if three principles are applied to them.
1. Principle of the Multiplicity of elements of structure
2.
“
Mobility of the elements of structure
3.
“
Inversion of the elements of structure
5.4
SUMMARY
Systemic grammar (first christened scale & category) is a model that looks at
language on the basis of context or situation.
5.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
What makes systemic grammar different from traditional and
transformational generative grammars? Which of the models will you
prefer for the analysis of a text, with particular reference to the
sentence?
5.6
REFERENCES
F. C. Scott et al (1978) English Grammar: A Linguistic study of its classes and
structure. London. Heinemann.
Halliday, MAK (1985) An Introduction To Functional Grammar. London.
Edward Arnold.
MAK, Halliday & Ruquiya Hassan (1976) Cohesion in English. London.
Longman.
5.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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MAK Haliday and Hassan (1976) Cohesion in English. London. Heinemann.
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TOPIC 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
6.0
TOPIC:
BRANCHES IN LINGUISTICS -
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TOPIC:
BRANCHES IN LINGUISTICS
6.1
INTRODUCTION
Linguistics is split into workable disciplines for ease of scholarship and
description.
6.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should have been introduced to:
i.
the different components in linguistics.
6.3
IN-TEXT
The obvious complexity in linguistics makes it difficult for linguists to describe
it all at once; they, therefore, split it into workable disciplines for ease of
scholarship and description. The different viewpoints from which studies and
description can be conducted on the subject matter are in the following
branches:
1. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS This is the study of
structure of
individual languages.
2. COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS Is the comparison of
different language structures.
3. PSYCHOLINGUISTIC Studies the performance, that is the
mental
processes of speaking.
4. SOCIOLINGUISTICS Studies language in relation to the
motivating social factors or simply language in society.
5. ETHNOLINGUISTICS Studies
relationship
between
language and
culture.
6. HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS Studies language change
over a
period of its existence.
Linguists further designed fields in linguistics in order to have a proper
description/levels of analysis that would take care of the minute details about
language. These aspects are;
a. Syntax (Grammar)
b. Morphology (Word Formation)
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c.
d.
e.
UNIT: 3
Phonology (Pronunciation)
Semantics (Meaning)
Phonetics (Sounds and Features)
DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS:
A description of the structure of a language is called a grammar (syntax) of
that language. This is different from the grammar taught in schools. In
schools, we use a ‘prescriptive grammar’ a grammar that tells us how we
should use the language, that is, it says one way of speaking is correct and
others are not. Descriptive grammars do not make judgements as to the
correctness of any way of speaking. It attempts to describe the way people
actually speak in all situation. Descriptive linguistics as stated above has
several different branches which study different aspects of language structure.
6.4
SUMMARY
Linguistics describes all the different aspects of language.
6.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Describe each of the branches in linguistics, providing examples to at
least two of the branches.
6.6
REFERENCES
Makeri, A. Y. (1999) Salient Issues in the Phonology of English.
6.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Lyons, J. (1977) Introduction to Theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. CUP.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
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ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY-
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7.0
TOPIC:
ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY
7.1
INTRODUCTION
Phonetics studies the features of sounds in general while phonology studies
the functions of sounds in particular languages.
7.2
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Represent the phonetic symbols of English.
ii.
Explain the difference/similarities between these two areas of
disciplines in linguistics.
7.3
IN-TEXT
7.3.1
PHONETICS
This is the study of speech sounds in general without reference to any
particular language. Speech sounds produced or heard are related to the
language system to a great extent. Anyone who knows a language, knows
what sounds are in the language and how they join together, and what these
different sound sequences mean. No two speakers (speaking the same
language) will ever say the same thing identically twice in exactly the same way.
Yet speakers understand each other because they know the same language.
One’s knowledge of language determines when physically different sounds are
considered the same. Phonetic study is therefore an attempt to describe all
the possible sounds used in a language. The study of the physical properties
of sound is called ACOUSTIC PHONETICS; the study of the shape of the
vocal tract in producing sound is called ARTICULATORY PHONETICS
PHONETIC ALPHABET.
Alphabetic spelling is the orthographic
representation of a word in a language. Phonetic alphabet refers to the
different properties of sound used by a speaker of a language. The
following are the sound symbols of English language illustrated with
examples:
consonant
symbols
/p/
Examples in words
putt, copper , sheep
consonant
symbols
/b/
baby, rubbish, bulb
/m/
man, plumber, come
/d/
dog, purdah, good
/t/
table, kettle, part
/k/
kettle, bucket, cake
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/g/
goat, beggar, bag
/n/
nose, money, known
/f/
phoneme, stuff
/v/
van, reserve, behave
/s/
sung, assume, ass
/z/
zero, bazaar, buzz
//
thigh, path
/ /
the, bathe
//
shoe, flash
//
measure, beige
/h/
heart, behave
//
church, butcher catch
judge, region, George
//
lamp, million, scroll
//
singing, song
/w/
week, beware
/j/
yacht, beyond
/r/
race, bearer
/?/
water
English)
(American
VOWEL (MONOPHTONGS)
Symbols
Examples in words
Symbols
Examples in words
/ :/
feet, sea, cede
/i/
fit, pit, kit
/e/
set, pet, get
/æ/
pan, man, rapport
/a:/
part, heart, cart
//
donkey, pot, dog
/ :/
court, bought, talk
/u:/
pool, soup, moon
//
pull, book, good
//
cut, putt, shut
/ :/
curt, bird, shirt
//
measure, about, permit
VOWEL (DIPHTHONGS)
Symbols
Examples in words
Symbols
Examples in words
/eI/
play, day
/ I/
boy, toy, employ
/ /
sky, high, buy
/I /
tear, fear, rear
/e /
tear, care, pair
/a /
house, cow, bow
/ /
goat, go, coat
/ /
pure, sure, cure
TRIPHTHONGS
/a /
tower, vowel
There are organs in human beings that are responsible for the production of
speech by producing the phonetic symbols illustrated above. The organs are:CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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The lungs, trachea, larynx, pharynx, glottis, velum, palate, tongue, teeth, lips,
nose,
teeth, ridge.
The regions in the mouth where the sounds illustrated these symbols are
produced are called ‘Places of Articulation’.
Bilabials The two lips come together at the production of /p, b, m, w/
Alveolars The tip of the tongue is raised to the alveolar ridge to produce
/t, d, s, z, n, l, r/
Velars The back of the tongue is raised toward the soft palate or
velum to produce /g, k, , h/
Dentals The tip of the tongue touches the upper front teeth to produce
/, /
Labio-dental The lower lip come in contact with the front teeth to
produce /f, v/
Palato-Alveolar The body of the tongue contacting or approximating
the hard palate produce / , , , , j/
MANNER OF ARTICULATION
Manner of production is concerned with the way and manner (characteristic
sound) sounds are produced by a speaker and as such, sounds may be
described as:1.
plosives
/p, b, t, d, k, g/
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Affricates
Fricatives
Nasals
Lateral
Glides
UNIT: 3
/, /
/f, v, , , s, z, , , h/
/m, n, /
//
/w, j, r/
Even though we have not presented every basic on phonetics, there are some
aspects that are obvious and worthy of note. This has to do with the
characteristic called VOICING. In the production of some of the sounds, the
airstream forces its way through and causes the vocal cord to vibrate
producing voiced sounds. All vowel sounds are voiced sounds, but for the
consonant sounds, they can be voiced /b, d, g, , v, , z, , m, n, , , w, r, j/ or
voiceless /p, t, k, , f, , s, , h/
7.3.2
PHONOLOGY
Phonology is the study of sound system, that is, the study of how speech
sounds are organised (structure and function) in language.
All human beings are capable of producing a particular set of speech sounds.
The previous section states that phonetics is the study of the acoustic and
articulatory features of speech sounds. These sounds are designed and termed
the Internatinoal Phonetics Alphabet (IPA). The IPA is an inventory of
arbitrary symbols designed to represent sounds used in all languages of the
world. Each particular language, however, uses only a small subset of these
sounds and each language has a unique system of using its sounds. Phonology
is the study of these sound systems of particular languages. In other words,
we can say that phonetics studies the features of sounds in general while
phonology studies the functions of sounds in particular languages.
Phonology, therefore, is the component of grammar that determines the
sound pattern of a language, including its inventory of phonemes, how they
may be combined to form natural-sounding words, how the phonemes must
be adjusted depending on their neighbours, and patterns of information,
timing and stress.
The subset of the IPA that the English language uses has twenty (20) basic
vowel sounds [12 monophthongs /i:, I, e, æ, :, , :, u:, , , :, / and 8
diphthongs /ei, aI, I, I , e , a , , /] and twenty four (24) basic consonant
sounds /p, b, t, d, k, g, t , d , f, v, , , s, z, , , h, m, n, , l, w, r, j/. When
consonant symbols appear in succession to form a group without an
intervening vowel sound, it is considered a consonant cluster. Not all clusters
that can occur are acceptable in the English system. Example of a cluster in
the word ‘strengths’, the underlined orthographies can constitute clusters if
‘strengths’ is transcribed /stre s/ ‘str’ is cluster one and ‘ s’ is cluster two in
the word. The following however, can not be considered clusters in the
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English systems ‘gbw’, pmb etc. Description in phonology can either be
SEGMENTAL OR SUPRA-SEGMENTAL. Segmental phonology deals
with the speech sounds while the supra-segmental deals with features of stress
and intonation (also known as prosodic).
In language we systematically pay attention to certain features and ignore
others. For example, in English we perceive /t/ and /d/ as different sounds,
but we would not perceive a clear lateral /l/ as different from a dark lateral /
/. A person with a sharp sense of sound perception might perceive them as
slight variations of the same sound. Each language pays attention to its own
particular set of features. In English /r/ and /l/ are different sounds,
however, Tiv and Japanese speakers take them as the same. To them, /r/ and
/l/ are allophones of the same sound.
Another feature that is worthy of attention in speech is called the ‘distinctive
feature’. The sounds or features which we consider different or distinctive in a
language are the ones which can be used to distinguish between different
words. For example, the difference between cart /ka:t/ and cat /kæt/ are /a:/
and /æ/. These words cart and cat become a pair that can be called minimal
pair that is, two words which differ in their forms by virtue of the difference of
one sound. Other minimal pairs can be; cut and cat, putt and part, court and
cot etc. Another feature to pay attention to is CONTRAST. If two forms
carry different meanings then we can say that a pair shows contrast. Examples
are ‘serve’ and ‘surf’, ‘pete’ and ‘beat’, ‘kite’ and ‘sight’. Two sounds that are
distinct but related are called allophones, yet, they cannot occur in the same
position in a word; they are said to be in complementary distribution.
Examples in English are the clear and dark lateral /l, / in leaf and ball,
aspirated and unaspirated /ph -p/ as in phot and top.
7.3.3
PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION
This means representation of speech on paper. It is a phoneme (sound), by
phoneme (sound) representation / interpretation of speech utilizing the IPA
sysmbols. There are two categories of transcription:- Narrow (PHONETIC)
and Broad (PHONEMIC) Transcription. Narrow transcription, distinguishes
all allophonic variations of a phoneme and also assists in transcribing dialectal
differences and distortions. Broad transcription, on the other hand, pools the
allophonic variations and represents them by one phoneme.
STUDENT ASSIGNMENT:
Discuss.
7.4
Languages are related at certain levels.
SUMMARY
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As phonetics studies the characteristic features of sounds, phonology
determines the sound pattern of a language, including its inventory of
phonemes.
7.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Make a list of the following:
a)
Bilabial
b)
velars
c)
dentals
d)
identify manner of articulation of the sounds listed.
2.
Languages are related at certain levels - Discuss.
7.6
REFERENCES
Makeri, A. (1999) ‘Salient Issues in the phonology of English’ In Attah, M. O.
(ed) (1999) The Humanities and Human Resources Development,
Maiduguri. University press.
7.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Attah, M. O. (2000) Practice in Spoken English for intermediate and Advanced
Learners. Maiduguri. Unimaid Press.
Lass, Roger (1984) Phonology: An Introduction to Basic Concepts: London.
Longman.
Singh, S. (1976) Phonetics: Principles and Practices. Baltimore. University Park
Press.
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TOPIC 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
8.0
TOPIC:
SYNTAX, MORPHOLOGY, SEMANTICS
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INTRODUCTION
8.2
OBJECTIVE
8.3
IN-TEXT
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MORPHOLOGY
8.3.2
SEMANTICS
8.4
SUMMARY
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8.0
TOPIC:
MORPHOLOGY, SEMANTICS
8.1
INTRODUCTION
Syntax, Morphology and Semantics.
8.2
OBJECTIVE
To introduce you to more areas in linguistics.
8.3
IN-TEXT
8.3.1
MORPHOLOGY
The study of the grammatical structure of words. In other words, is the study
of word structure and word formation.
Matthews (1974) categorises morphology into two branches, viz, lexical
morphology and inflectional morphology. Matthews (1974) further divides
lexical
morphology
into
smaller
sub-fields:
Derivation
and
Compound/composition. This can be represented diagramatically as in the
Figure below.
Figure 1:
Subcategorization of Morphology
MORPHOLOGY
LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY
INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY
Matthews (1974) states that lexical morphology deals mainly with the process
of word formation and it is divided into two smaller sub-fields as shown in the
figure above. Derivational morphology, a sub-division of lexical morphology,
is concerned with how words are formed or generated by adding affixes
(morphemes), which usually change the grammatical categories of words.
Here are some examples from English:
VERB
try + ing
generate + ion
derive + ion
trying (adj)
generation (n)
derivation (n)
The above English examples show that lexical morphology can determine the
grammatical change from verb to adjective or noun. Furthermore, derivation
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deals with bound and free morphemes. According to Matthews (1974) free
morphemes are grammatical units which can stand on their own; they do not
depend on any lexeme; they are also meaningful units. On the other hand,
bound morphemes are grammatical units that cannot stand on their own.
They depend on the lexeme in order to be meaningful. For example:
free morpheme
Bound morpheme
come (verb) +
ing coming (adj)
try (verb) +
ing trying (adj)
bad (verb) + ly badly (adj)
The above English examples show that the derivation process consists of the
following:
operand (base)
formative (what you add to the root)
derivand (result of the process)
This can be exemplified as follows:
OPERAND
fly +
dance +
sing +
+
ing
ing
ing
FORMATIVE
DERIVAND
flying
dancing
singing
The second sub-division of lexical morphology is composition/compounding.
According to Matthews (1974), it involves situations where two independent
words are put together to form a word. There is, however, a minor difference
between composition and compounding. Composition means a situation
whereby two words are put together to form a lexeme and the product is not
necessarily the meaning of the joined words. For example:
Ice + cream
tear + gas
brain + drain
Icecream
teargas
braindrain
On the other hand, compounding is a situation whereby two or more ordinary
lexical items are brought together to create a new word. But here, the product
is the sum total of all the meanings. For example, in English:
class + room
classroom
school + boy
schoolboy
black + board
blackboard
Inflectional morphology, according to Matthews (1974), deals with the surface
structure of a word. In other words, the inflectional morpheme does not
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change the category of a word but, rather, serves as a marker of number or
tense. It is the modification of the form of a word to fit its role in the
sentence, usually by adding an inflection example:
I conquerED
she thinkS
two chickenS
speed killS
Morphological processes
Matthews (1974) discusses morphological processes, identifying three
basic types, viz, affixation, reduplication and modification.
Affixation
The term affixation can be defined as the process whereby an element
is attached onto an existing morpheme or root. It could either be
prefixation, suffixation or inffixation.
Prefixation
This means the occurrence of a bound morpheme before the root or
stem. For example, in English:
in + complete
incomplete
im + possible
impossible
un + happy
unhappy
Suffixation
This means the occurance of a bound morpheme after the root. For
example in English:
quick + ly
quickly
happy + ness
happiness
establish + ment
establishment
Infixation
This means the occurrence of a morph or morpheme within the root
of an element/lexeme. For example, in English:
man (singular)
men (plural)
goose (singular)
geese (plural)
In a nutshell, according to Matthews (1974), affixation is defined by
two characteristics, the first being that the derivand consists of the
operand plus a formative (the affix) that has been added to it. Thus,
“walking” for example, consists of the operand “walk” plus the
formative “ing”. Secondly, that the affixes are constant, thus they are
the same for whatever operand is being used. For example, the
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affixation of “ing” in English may be represented as follows: o + ing.
Where o stands for any of the possible operands such as bring, do,
sleep, etc.
Reduplication
Reduplication is the second type of morphological process mentioned
by Matthews. According to Matthews (1974), the term is defined as a
process whereby another shade of meaning is produced by
reduplicating the whole or part of the root, namely, complete
reduplication and partial reduplication.
Complete reduplication
Complete reduplication refers to a situation whereby the repeated
segment or reduplicated segment is exactly like the original copy.
Partial reduplication
Partial reduplication refers to a situation whereby only a part of the
root is repeated or reduplicated.
Modification
Modification is the last morphological process mentioned by Matthews
(1974). According to him the term refers to the process whereby the
whole or part of shape of the root is modified to get another.
8.3.2
SEMANTICS
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Structural semantics applies
the principles of structural linguistics to the study of meaning through the
notion of semantics relations (which is also known as sense relations), such as
synonym and antonym. In generative grammar, the semantic component is a
major area of the grammar’s organisation, assigning a semantic representation
to sentences, and analysing lexical items in terms of semantic features. The
theory of semantic fields views vocabulary as organised into areas within
which words (lexical items) inter-relate and define each other.
Denotation is the basic meaning of a word, or is essentially the dictionary
meaning of words, though information about the most widely shared
connotation is usually given in dictionaries.
Connotation is associated meanings of a word, or is the personal or emotional
associations which are suggested by words and which thus form part of their
meaning. For individual speakers, for example, the word Blood may connote
danger to one person and purity to another.
The following words appear frequently in, and relate to, semantics:
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Homonyms: words which are the same in form but different in meaning;
that is, a word which has both the same sound and spelling as another,
though different in meaning or origin. For example, the noun Bear and
the verb bear, are homonyms (of each other).
Homograph is a word that has the same spelling as another, but is
different in meaning, origin or pronunciation. For example, the noun
subject and the verb subject are homographs (of each other).
Homophone is a word which sounds the same as another, but is different
in meaning, origin or spelling, example quay and key are homophones
(of each other).
Synonym: a word with the same or nearly the same meaning as another
word in the same language. For example, sad and unhappy are
synonyms.
Antonym: Means a word opposite in meaning to another word, example,
success is the antonym of failure, clarity is the antonym of ambiguity.
Ambiguous means having two or more distinguishable meanings.
Description of a word or a sentence which expresses more than one
meaning, example of a sentence that is ambiguous:
Agnes told Fati that she was tricky. It is not certain whether it’s Agnes
or Fati that is tricky. A term similar to but distinguishable from
ambiguity is vagueness. It refers to lack of specificity in a lexical item.
What are the perimeters of the following words, for examples: house,
car, John’s train, good legs?
8.4
SUMMARY
The word as a basic, though not the minimal unit of grammatical description
allows the traditional division of the grammar of most languages into
morphology - the study of grammatical structure of words, and syntax, the
grammatical structure of sentences as built up of words. Semantics is the
science of meaning to forms in language.
8.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
What is lexical morphology?
2.
What is inflectional morphology?
3.
i.
What is operand in morphology?
ii.
Give 5 examples
4.
What is semantics?
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5.
UNIT: 3
Explain the following terms in semantics with 2 examples each.
a.
Synonym
b.
Homonym
c.
Ambiguity
d.
Homograph
e.
Antonym
8.6
REFERENCES
Tomori, S. H. (1977) The Morphology And Syntax Of Present Day English.
London. Heinemann.
8.7
SUGGESTED READING
Mathews, P. H. (1974) Morphology. London. Longman.
Procter, C. (ed) (1980) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. London.
Longman.
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TOPIC 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
9.0
TOPIC:
LANGUAGE
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9.1
INTRODUCTION
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9.2
OBJECTIVE
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9.3
IN-TEXT
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9.3.1
LANGUAGE DEFINED -
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9.3.2
WHY STUDY LANGUAGE
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9.3.3
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
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9.3.3.1
IDIOLECT
9.3.3.2
MOTHER TONGUE (L1)
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9.3.3.3
SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)
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9.3.3.4
FOREIGN LANGUAGE (FL)
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9.4
SUMMARY
9.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
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9.6
REFERENCES
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9.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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9.0
TOPIC:
LANGUAGE
9.1
INTRODUCTION
Robins (80:2) observes that “Language in all its forms and manifestations, that
is all the languages of the world and all the different uses to which in the
various circumstances of mankind they are put, constitutes the field of the
linguist. He seeks a scientific understanding of the place of language in human
life, and of the ways in which it is organised to fulfil the needs it serves and
the functions it performs”.
9.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic, you should have been introduced to:
i.
the varieties of language.
9.3
IN-TEXT:
9.3.1
LANGUAGE DEFINED
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social
group cooperates; that is to say, a group of arbitrary vocal symbols which
permit all people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the
system of that culture, to communicate or to interact. Language is immensely
complicated and it is because of the complexity that we may present more
than just a definition. It is worthy of note the observation already made that
the language we are discussing here is ‘species specific to man’.
WHAT IS LANGUAGE THEN?
Language is communication system and ‘communication’ is the use of sign to
convey message. A signal is different from the message. For example,
sighting a traffic light pole is not communication; however, if one observes the
different colours which give signal whether to stop or to go, then
communication has taken place.
9.3.2
WHY WE STUDY LANGUAGE
Language is essential to all human activities. Without language human
existence would be chaotic and we would not achieve any of the following;
1.
Social activity would not be possible.
2.
Success in the different fields of endeavour would not be possible.
Without language man could not have achieved his advanced state of mental
development and technological development. We use language in everything
we do. Effective communication is vital to the success of any endeavour and
many problems on various fields are related to language and can be solved
through a proper understanding of language and how it works. Two
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important examples are in the fields of education, where language differences
can form barriers to understanding, and politics where language is closely tied
to ethnic identity. Language is one of the features that distinguishes man from
other animals; as earlier observed it is ‘species specific to man’. Human beings
have a unique brain and the capacity to learn and use language, which is much
more complex than any known animal communication system. Therefore
understanding language can help us to understand the human brain and its
unique mental capacity.
Since man is language, and language is man, Language therefore lives as well
as dies and human language possesses the following features;1. Thought and Activity - Man uses language to think,
observe and act.
2. Language medium All languages use the same channel
for sending and receiving sound waves.
3. Language hierarchy Language has discrete sound units.
9.3.3
VARIETIES OF LANGUAGES
Dialect.
This is a group of related idiolects used by a clearly identifiable
speech community.
Such a dialect, although sharing basic
phonological, lexical and grammatical features with other dialect of the
language, will have peculiar phonological, lexical and grammatical
variations. For example, British English and American English, Kano
Hausa and Sokoto Hausa are dialects of English and Hausa
respectively.
9.3.3.1
IDIOLECT
This is a variety according to individual’s features of speech. Manner
of speech specific to individual speakers.
9.3.3.2
MOTHER TONGUE (L1)
This is a child’s language of first experience. It may not be necessarily
the language of one’s biological mother, and normally, it is the society
in which the child grows up that determines the mother tongue.
9.3.3.3
SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)
Second language is the language learnt for the purpose of education or
for wider communication and interaction in a bilingual or multi-lingual
society. It is not necessarily the second language in terms of
acquisition. It may be the sixth or even the seventh in the order of
acquisition, but it still remains the second language (L2). What matters,
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in this case, is the function to which the language is put. In Nigeria,
the second language is English.
9.3.3.4
FOREIGN LANGUAGE
This is a language used for communication across frontiers. It is also
used for the purpose of news casting, newspapers, journals etc. It
should be noted that the user or speaker of English has mother tongue
but acquires a foreign language, in addition, for a purpose. Foreign
language has a restrictive usage because it is studied on purpose.
Examples of foreign language in the case of Nigeria is French, German
and Chinese.
9.4
SUMMARY
Varieties of language are determined according to the functions they are put.
9.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Define a second language?
9.6
REFERENCES
Pinker, Steven (1994) The Language Instinct. New York, Harper Perenial.
9.7
SUGGESTED READING
Fromkin V. and Rodman R. (1974) An Introduction to Language. N. Y. Rinehart.
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1:
‘Linguistics’ Studies language through investigations by means of
controlled and empirical, verifiable observations of language data. It
has a base (smallest meaningful unit of description) where meaningful
description can take off.
TOPIC 2: Theories and models are two of a kind because both of them deal with
language. (Define the 2 terms from the text).
TOPIC 3: Traditional grammar has been the model that scholars who intend to
study other languages use as pattern. There are terms (parts of speech)
that language scholars still find serviceable in contemporary language
study. Traditional grammar therefore made valuable contributions to
language study. However, whatever exists with advantage should have
a disadvantage. There were short sights in the handling and
description of certain areas (a sentence for instance) in language by
traditional grammar. Traditional grammar after Greek grammar and
that makes it difficult for other languages whose structures that are not
complex to fit into the description laid down as a model by traditional
grammar. Greek and English are different languages. The systems of
word formation, plural formation, sentence patterns are all different.
TOPIC 4: Discuss the fact that phrase structure rules can be adequate only to
sample sentences, but cannot handle or incorporate/ or be used to
describe complex constructions.
TOPIC 5: Systemic Grammar is a model on language as social semiotics and it is a
model that studies and/or describes language as a linguistics context or
social context. While traditional grammar and transformational
generative grammars are grammars that operate with rules in all the
forms of scholarship that apply to them.
TOPIC 6: Define each. Examples can be the English speech of a group and the
Received Pronunciation.
TOPIC 7:
1. /m, p, b, w/
2. /k, g, /
3. / , /
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
UNIT: 3
/m/ - nasal
/p, b/ - plosive
/w/ - approximant
/k, g/ - plosive
/ / - nasal
/ , / - fricative
TOPIC 8:
Refer to text 8.3.1 & 8.3.2
TOPIC 9
Refer to text 9.3.1
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TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
1. Discuss the inadequacies and the benefits of traditional
grammar in the modern world of language study.
2. “But at least in all but the simplest sentences, phrase structure
rules are inadequate for a full structural exposition” - Discuss.
3. Explain the terms below, with two examples for each.
4. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Bound morphemes,
Affixation,
Infixation,
Prefixation,
Suffixation.
5. Explain Denotation and connotation meaning in English.
6. Assign stress (by use of bar1) on the following words
7. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Education
Consonant
Deteriorate
Money
pronunciation.
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