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Zanker
Zanker 1-31
Augustus’s time was an Era Greece was captured, but Rome was captured by
Greek art and culture (mores maiorum turned into luxuria). Roman success in war led to
new wealth in the hands of few, the poor rushing into the cities, and Competition for
social and political power. Hellenistic art was a way for leaders to assert their power and
also helped to dissolve old Roman values. People began to reject old values and gods
because of all the civil wars (ie: Pompey vs. J. Caesar; Octavian vs. Antony). Once
Augustus was in power, he wanted to change this – “moral revival” with publica
magnificentia (public festivals and games). This was done through “an interplay of the
image that the emperor himself projected” and honors bestowed upon him.
Nudity of Hellenistic statues (to portray strength, invincibility) was at first very
disturbing- rival aristocrats didn’t like giving others superhuman attributes. Difference
between equestrian statues giving military glory and nude statues subtly insinuating more
than just this glory- maybe kingly glory b/c this is how Greek kings were portrayed.
Hellenization soon spread within the private sphere, despite the Senate’s attempts to stop
it. Absolute power didn’t exist (because of the yearly change of Consuls) so these statues
became a mere sign of distinction, not necessary power. Personalities were portrayed in
the statues at this time (ie: chubby Pompey, detached Caesar, young Octavian):
contradiction of realistic face and superhuman body.
Coins used to have images reminiscent of victorious Gods or of family heritage
(often a blend of both). Also on other structures such as votive monuments. Rivalries led
to self-promotion and frantic displays of wealth and success on monuments/coins. Used
tombs (ie: baker’s tomb) to show position as freedmen, etc… but still it didn’t prove
anything about power- truly, they only had money and position, but no power
Rome was a blend of rich and poor, and before the Augustan period was quickly
deteriorating. Senate wouldn’t make theaters, baths, etc… because they thought it was
too much of Greek culture. New altars for favorite divinities with Hellenistic attributes
went against old Roman religion and caused the oldest places of worship to be forgotten
Caesar build the temple to Venus to outdo Pompey’s theater as a gift to the people- it was
the first time anyone proclaimed their super-humanity in public.
Outside Rome, Hellenization was less ambiguous; it was very open and concrete.
Only was Augustus was ruler did Roman political images penetrate the private sphere.
Before, people used to dress up and pretend to be Greek (which I personally think is sort
of cute) to read Greek works and take in Greek art. It was the world of the spirit, otium.
They stopped caring so much about their Roman republic- making it easier to accept oneman rule.
ZANKER 53-59
The Programmatic Silver Coinage of Octavian (images of augustus on coinage
just before the battle of Actium)
Apollo (associated with Octavian) - singer, lyre player, god of peace and
reconciliation, stood for
purification and punishment, a good representation of Italy in civil war
with Antony.
Dionysis (associated with Antony) - there was a mud slinging campaign
against the image of Antony, dionysis was used to represent him.
Often coins have divinity on one side, Octavian on the other, and can at
times be read in sequence through the course of wars. These are certainly
beautiful bold and easy to understand coins with political ends (they are
much clearer than coins of the late republican period.)
octavian goes on to blend his image with that of a god, other themes on
the coins: divine patronage, victory, return to order and stability.
points out that new images were rare at this time and attracted much
attention, making their message that much more powerful.
sites that all the Romans tried to play up the association of Antony with
Dionysis, tried to show him as asian, an outsiders cast in a spell by
cleopatra. he is portrayed as delicate, with servants and soft clothing.
it is cleopatra that wears the hero's lion skin and wields the heros club
Zanker, pp. 79-89
The Great Turning Point: Intimations of a New Imperial Style
After Actium and the capture of Alexandria (31-30 B.C.) Augustus had concentrated all
the power of the Roman Empire in one man. With an end to uncertainty, more focus
could be drawn to glorifying his name. Augustus used his triumph to promote both
Rome’s and his own glory, erecting statues, and buildings, and accumulating many public
honors.
The Forum and Curia were two examples of the transformation that took place soon
thereafter. Each carried symbolic messages about Augustus’s military victories,
including many Egyptian prizes and naval artifacts, as well and tributes to his Caesarian
ancestry.
Augustus’s numerous allusions to his victory at Actium had to be tempered by the
political realities that many Romans were then “the enemy” and that some of his own
close relatives were related to Antony as well. More abstract symbolism was employed,
using parts of ships, marine creatures, and the figure of Victoria, Augustus’s personal
patron goddess. These monuments were copied in other cities throughout the empire.
Images associated with Actium also became household decoration and additions to
household seals.
Self-glorification soon gave way to images of religious devotion as Augustus sought to
change the focus in Rome. The god Apollo was credited with leading Augustus to
victory at Actium, and was honored by statues and temples throughout Rome. In a shift,
images of Augustus were emphasized less than those of the deities. As noted in the Res
Gestae, he had eighty statues of himself melted down and used the money from their sale
to dedicate golden offerings in the Temple of Apollo. Zanker also notes that the melting
was a convenient way for Augustus to make some of his earlier, more selfish statues
disappear.
(Zanker 89-100)
Res Republica Restituta
“The simple honors granted Augustus in 27 B.C. were thus turned into tokens of
monarchial rule through their use in combination with other symbols, in particular in the
decoration of temples for the ruler cult” (Zanker 93):
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The corona civica, once an honor given for rescuing a comrade in battle, is now
given “ob cives servatos” (for guarding the citizens).
The oak wreath becomes a symbol associated with Augustus’ power instead of a
symbol of Jupiter.
Laurel leaves, once having represented victory, are now synonyms for Augustus.
(same applies for oak leaves).
The clipeus virtutis was once given as a form of honor in Hellenistic tradition but
now came to symbolize what the Senate expected from a virtuous ruler and how
that ruler defined himself.
Virtus, iustitia, clementia, and pietas are on the clipeus virtutis but pietas becomes
focus of it especially after Aeneid is written.
The Title “Augustus”: A New Image
The adjective Augustus was perfect because of its range of meanings and associations; it
could be interpreted as “stately,” “dignified” and “holy.” Title also refers to verb augere
“to increase” and to augur.
Thus Octavian’s former bony portraiture is replaced by a more harmonious style,
influenced by the Classical canon. Hair is symmetric along with facial features (large
almond shaped eyes); calm, elevated expression and spontaneous turn of head; new
portraiture is visual equivalent of adjective augustus.
Zanker p. 101-114—Chapter 4: The Augustan Program of Cultural Renewal
Post-Actium mood in Rome
 Pessimistic about future of Rome, especially among upper class, in light of civil
war and seemingly complete moral collapse of Rome
 Simultaneously, utopian hopes arose in the form of hopes for a new age of peace
and prosperity
 Augustus’s challenge was to demonstrate concern for rebuilding Roman State and
Society
Augustus’s Program of Renewal
 Set in motion a program of renewal to “heal” Roman society
o Principal themes were renewal of religion, custom, virtus, and honor of
Roman people
o Stages of program
 Religious revival in 29 BC
 Efforts toward public magnificentia and restoration of Roman
virtus in Parthian Campaign of 20
 Moral renewal in 18
o Needed the mutual collaboration of princeps, political allies, poets,
architects and artists to pull off this “renewal”
Pietas as a leitmotif of Augustus’s rebuilding
 Augustus began rebuilding old and forgotten temples in Rome as early as 29 B.C.,
dedicated the Temple of Apollo in 28 B.C.
 Temple building used as an antidote to the Late Republic’s loss of interest in
traditional Roman religion
 Augustus reintroduced ancient traditions, such as opening games by throwing a
ceremonial spear, and closing the doors of the Temple of Janus in honor of peace.
Temple Building
 Augustus prioritized temple building over all other expenditures, even over
building his own residence. Slogan: “Nothing is too good for the gods”
 New temple construction used marble from newly-opened quarry near Rome, not
wood and terra cotta like most of Rome’s previous temples.
 Augustus sought to imitate the most impressive features of Greek architecture,
but added Roman aspects, like a high podium, and steeply sloping, decorated
pediment.
 Incorporated altar into façade of temples by embedding it in steeply sloping bank
of stairs
 Before Augustus, temple ornamentation was a form of competition between
wealthy patrons, now it was standard-issue for the glory of the Gods.
 Augustus set strict guidelines for temple building
 Most extravagant and centrally-located temples were connected to Augustus:
Mars Ultor, Apollo on the Palatine, also Venus and Jupiter.
 Augustus played favorites with temples—totally erased Egyptian/Eastern
religious symbols like Isis, which offered personal connections to God without the
Roman State as an intermediary. Other temples, such as the temple of Magna
Mater—a deity of Trojan origin—were rebuilt only later, but not of marble.
New Imagery
 New temple construction demanded themes of ornamentation to decorate walls
 Augustus had a very narrow range of deities artists could celebrate, and also
prohibited immodest presentation of himself as princeps.
 Because artists were constrained in their subject matter, ornamentation became
very detailed
 Passage from Ovid about temple of Mars- shows intimate connection between
architecture, imagery, and widespread expectations and slogans: Message was not
elitist- comprehensible to all.
Zanker 114-135
-Rome had many days dedicated to festival and sacrifice, many of which were
documented in art (sculpture, etc.)
-Bucrania (depicted in art with an ox skull) associated with concept of sacrifice.
-Arval Brethren = priesthood revived by Augustus who were originally concerned
with worship of fertility goddess called Dea Dia.
-Priests wore traditional garb and acted often upon ancient regulations. Priests
held high status in society. Four colleges of priests (which acted in conjunction under
Augustus) depicted in Ara Pacis with togas over head composing two-thirds of members
in processions on the two exterior, long relief panels.
-Augustus served as model of piety – role as pontifex maximus. Many visual
representations of Augustus veiled.
Zanker Summaries (pp.’s 135-156)
Publica Magnificenta
Zanker explains here the contrast between the Late Republican period and the age of
Augustan rule with regard to public works and the distribution of public and private
wealth. It was during the time of Augustus that a large scale urban renewal program was
underwent leading to a transformation of Rome in which it went from “a city of brick to a
city of marble,” and this was a result of the concern that members of the Augustan circle
had to bestow artwork and lands which were once held privately to the public.
The Princeps Sets an Example
In this section, Zanker discusses an example of private property that was turned over to
the state and thereafter used for public enjoyment. In 15 B.C., a wealthy Roman by the
name of Vedius Pollio died and bequeathed part of his estate to Augustus. Zanker writes
that this was, “a perfect opportunity for a significant and visible gesture,” and so
Augustus had the site leveled and and the Porticus Liviae was erected. It was situated on
land that was “returned to the people” and constructed in such a way that did not
compromise the integrity of the urban neighborhood Pollio’s former mansion resided in.
This is a prime example of how extreme private luxury was made available to the public
under Augustus; it was now an ostentatious display of the benefaction Augustus and his
cohorts. Furthermore, Augustus took the columns (they were extravagant and imported
from Greece) that Pollio had used in the structure of his mansion and used them in the
central arch of the Theater of Marcellus.
Agrippa’s Building Program: A Villa for the Masses
While Augustus was the primary overseer of the construction of temples in the city,
Agrippa was charged with more secular tasks. He was dedication to the revitalization of
public areas, and in his programmatic address of 33 B.C. spoke of “the need to publicly
display Greek art” which once again works in accordance with the transformation of
private to public luxury. During this time, Agrippa put forth his talents and efforts to
revitalize Rome through the construction of new water facilities, the dedication of public
parks, public gifts of Greek art, and the renovation of areas used by the plebeians. In 19
B.C., the Aqua Virgo was constructed that fed the new public baths, which were in the
center of the monumenta Agrippae, a huge recreational area that was adorned with laurel
trees, promenades, and Greek art.
Augustus’s Family: A Ubiquitous Presence
This section mainly contrasts Augustus’s secular building projects with Agrippa’s,
mainly in the sense that Augustus dedicated non-religious buildings with more political
motivation. This is evidenced in the fact that most of these types of buildings that he
erected were named after family members. It was mostly a way to honor members of the
Augustan dynasty and also to make his family a household name.
Status and Applause: The Theater as Meeting Place of the Princeps and the People
During the time of Augustus’ rule, two new theatres were built: one was the Theater of
Marcellus and the other was a smaller theater of the Younger Balbus. Within this section
of the city, at least forty thousand people could congregate for celebrations and games.
These areas were used primarily for gladiatorial contests and dramatic performances.
Gladiatorial contests were entertainment provided by the wealthy benefactors of Rome
(Augustus claimed to give games at least eight times in the Res Gestae), while Augustus
placed importance on the arts so that Rome could maintain its image as the cultural center
of Rome. Poets were allowed to read at these events, and some (most notably Virgil)
were publicly awarded by Augustus himself.
Augustus may have had his own motivations for utilizing these spaces as well. It was
here that he was displayed among the plebeians, and this gave the citizens of Rome a
sense of contact with their leader. At the theater, social hierarchy was also on display, for
sectors of the theater were designated for people of a particular rank, and even
undesirable people were discriminated against publicly.
Ideology and Image of the City
This section basically summarizes everything previously mentioned, tying it in on how it
contributed to the glory of Rome. What is also discussed is the Augustan divergence from
the idea that the structure of the city of Rome had to be entirely revised as was though by
Julius Caesar and others. The character of Rome was somewhat antiquated for its time
because of a desire of Augustus’s to keep in accordance with pietas which “required that
old cult places be respected” and he also was averse to interfering with private property.
The urban transformations that did take place were more focused on enhancing the
quality of life for citizens. There was much more city management in the form of
building restrictions and fire departments.
Zanker 156 – 166 - Mores Maiorum
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It was believed that without a return to the ancestral virtues there could be no
internal healing of the body politic. Augustus, with his moral legislation sought
to improve sexual ethics, and inspire the nobility to produce more children,
because he thought this was essential for the maintenance of the status quo (i.e.
maintenance of the existing power structures). The Leges Iuliae, were laws on
marriage and morals, which prescribed criminal prosecution for adultery,
penalties for the unmarried, and rewards for those with several children.
Visual imagery employed to spread the message: depiction of children (Gauis and
Lucius) on the Ara Pacis; glass medallions with images of imperial princes and
their children were distributed in the army.
It was ironic that the cool, calculating realist had turned into an indefatigable
moral preacher.
Augustus with his modesty and supposed simplicity provided himself as an
exemplum. However, Augustus’ legislation and his intentions were hurt by the
actions of his daughter and granddaughter, the two Julias. While he punished
them severely, it was hard for him to project his family as the ideal example.
The nobles, who saw a break between the ideal and reality, regarded Augustus’
policies pessimistically. Additionally, poets like Ovid, poked fun at it in works
like the Ars Amatoria
Augustus made the toga the unofficial Roman state dress and a symbol of the
proper attitude. Married women also had a special form of dress called the stola;
it was a long sleeveless overgarment; symbol of female virtue and modesty. (The
men thought that wearing the toga was tedious and women were reluctant to trade
their elegant gowns for this plain, shirtlike garment).
Zanker 167-183:
Everyone is happy about the stability in Rome and the restored Republic, so a new myth
based on the Saturnian age was created to make this happiness eternal. Virtus, mos
maiorum, and the blessing of children were the leitmotifs of the Secular Games festival in
17 BC. The festival made use of the symbol of Julius Caesar and a comet, reminiscent of
the coins made when Octavian first appeared in public life. During the festival, many
sacrifices were made to the gods, with the theme surrounding health and fertility. Horace
composed the poem Carmen Saeculare especially for this festival.
Imagery of Fertility and Abundance
Gave the idea of lasting happiness
Tellus relief on the Ara Pacis: matronly deity (can be any of many goddesses) holding
two babies, with symbols of food and bounty (livestock) surrounding them. The two
figures on her side are aurae, twins emboding winds on land and sea, symbol of the tame
and peace in the new age.
Fertility is directly linked to Augustus’s marital legislation—celebrating childbearing as
happiness and beauty. See 3 reliefs of animals and young on p. 179: motherhood, fertility,
peace, rustic life, pietas.
Vines on the Ara Pacis: one of the most frequently repeated elements, they occupy more
than half the surface of the altar enclosure. They are signs of fertility and abundance,
though there’s a strict order to every detail (law of Augustus). Combination of real and
imaginary plants show the new age as a paradise on earth.
Zanker 183-195
Happiness Born of Victory
-Augustus’ victory over the Parthians in 20 BC was endowed with extraordinary
significance
-prerequisite for opening of Golden Age
-New conception of victory which saw the ruler as the invulnerable victor and
guarantor of world order
-Victory was believed to be direct manifestation of the divine
-For Augustan ideology, proof of the unique and godlike nature of the ruler, demonstrate
that the morally reborn “Republic” had won back the gods
-Victory over Parthians seen as necessary for restoration of republic
-Campaign itself unspectacular (diplomatic, not military victory)
-building of small round temple to Mars the Avenger (seen on coins with an archaistic
statue of Mars) in the Capitol (next to other sanctuaries linked with Augustus)
-Image of defeated Parthian, originally created by Senate, especially popular
-Kneeling barbarian shaped the Romans’ view of their relationship to those
peoples living on the borders of the Empire
-Prima Porta
-Does not hesitate to celebrate the radiant conqueror
-Left hand with a spear, right hand the recaptured signa (probably)
-Footwear definitely not that of a mortal, Eros riding a dolphin alludes to his
ancestress Venus
-Breastplate
-Parthian king extends the legionary eagle to a Roman
-Two mourning women sit on either side, representing conquered
provinces or client states
-Mother Earth reclines beneath the central scene (peace, prosperity), astral
deities in the upper part (with their perpetual rising and sinking symbolize
eternity), two sphinxes are the guardians of the world
-Historical event turned into a paradigm of salvation with the gods and
heavens acting as guarantors
Myth in Past and Present
-New state and Augustus’ dominant role required legitimacy from past
-Legitimizing the rule of a Julian dynasty was a principal element in the creation of the
new official mythology
Augustus’ Family and Rome: Growth of a Myth
-At first when he claimed inheritance, seized upon the mythical tradition of the Julian
family
-Later cast himself as savior and protégé of Apollo
-With the naming of his grandchildren, revival of family mythology, this time not for
personal self-glorification
-Aeneid seriously furthered this myth and bolstered Romans’ self-confidence
-Conditioned by the perception of cultural superiority of the Greeks
-Forum of Augustus most fully expresses the new mythology
-Temple dedicated to Mars after Parthian incident aids in forgetting the
association with civil war
-Built by Augustus on his personal property, financed by spoils of war
-Avoided any direct references to himself, but myth and history are woven
together into a vision of salvation
Zanker pp. 195-215
Topic: use of mythological figures in the age of Augustus
Thesis: nothing really new, but they are used less than in the past and not for the stories
as they used to be but for more didactic purposes… two particular stories and gods
dominate because of connections to Rome: story of Troy and pious Aeneas, son of
Venus, and story of Romulus, son of Mars
Adaptation of Mars’ image—formerly youthful conqueror, now fatherly figure and
“guardian of peace”—these images juxtaposed as for Augustus in his early vs. later years
Images of Aeneas next to Venus and of Romulus next to Mars
Aeneas= “exemplum pietatis” whereas Romulus= “Rome’s first triumphator”
These are seen as complementary Roman virtues, not in conflict with each other
This juxtaposition of Aeneas and Romulus on Ara Pacis as well:
“pious pater Aeneas” portrayed making sacrifice to Penates rescued from Troy (not to
Juno as in Virgil)… past and present tied together in this symbolic sacrifice representing
future sacrifices as well as past and present… timeless
Didactic purpose: “Two key concepts, pietas and virtus”
Also important are the “workings of predestination and providence” (as in Virgil)
In myth scenes, this is what characters generally represent:
“Aeneas, Vesta, Diomedes, or the emperor himself associated with the Palladium; Venus
or Aeneas symbolizing the divine ancestry of the imperial house; or Apollo, the tripod,
the sphinx, or the sibyl all alluding to divine providence” (209)
(all this didactic intent overwhelming—some like Ovid seek respite in humor)
In portrait galleries, Aug puts recent ancestors next to ancient ones back to Aeneas and
the Alba Kings and next to this ancestral line (like the one in Book 6 of Aeneid) room full
of “great men of Rome”
Roman history presented here as growth of an empire
“Comparison between past and present greatness” invited by Augustus
Zanker p. 215-223
The assimilation of Augustus’s successors into the National mythology:
Gaius and Lucius Caesar as descendants of Venus
In general, Augustus carefully selected the appearances of his grandsons (they were
Julia’s sons, with Agrippa). First appearance of Gaius when he was 7 – took part in the
Trojan Games. In the same year, Marius struck a coin with the busts of the two boys with
their mother Julia. Above Julia’s head is the corona civica, as a dynastic symbol and
proof of direct descent from Augustus. On the reverse is a bust linked with Diana’s
quiver – implying that the goddess herself was there when the two boys were born.
Agrippa was also celebrated on coins, mostly associated with Actium.
Two boys honored on the Ara Pacis too – wearing a short tunica (unlike the other kids
wearing togas), and are clearly marked out by the torques, a braided ring around the neck
(torques specifically mentioned in the Aeneid). The “Troy Game”, which was an ancient
religious competition on horseback favored by the youth of Roman nobility, was
integrated in the myth of Troy during the Augustan era. Augustus once had a golden
torque awarded to a boy who had been injured in the contest. [Gaius and Lucius’
presence of Ara Pacis frieze still debatable – scholars say they are too young, yet they
occupy a prominent position in a procession full of imperial family members; also older
boy clutches on to Agrippa’s toga; might have been portrayed younger to win charm for
the imperial family.]
A few years later, Gaius was presented to the legions on the Rhine; made an impression,
and a scabbard ornament depicted the two princes as officers, wearing the cuirass,
flanking their mother. Later, when Augustus had himself elected as consul (5 B.C.), he
introduced Gaius to the senate; Gaius was given consulship in advance (designated for 1
A.D.), and was named princeps inventutis – which came to mean, successor to the throne.
From then on, the two boys always flanked the princeps wherever he went. Coin minted
between 2BC – 11AD had the boys shown with honorary tokens conferred on them by
equites, a silver shield and silver lance. Above their heads are tokens of the priesthoods to
which they belonged: Gaius as pontifex, Lucius as augur. Legend of coin calls them: sons
of Augustus, consuls designate, and principes inventutis.
Portraits of the brothers were made in the classical style, and stylized very much like
Augustus’ portraits. An altar of Lares (7 B.C.) joins young princes with their ancestor
Venus. The deified Caesar ascends to heaven in a chariot drawn by winged horses;
Venus greets him with one hand, and with the other embraces a small togate figure,
while a second, even smaller, clings to her. A third togate figure stands behind the
chariot with right hand raised in prayer – most likely to be Augustus (modest role
suggests he is dedicated the original of this relief to Divus Iulius).
After two princes died, they were incorporated permanently into the new national myth.
Honored throughout the empire as heroes; received triumphal arches, public buildings,
altars, temples; their names were added to the sacred songs of dancing priests; Augustus
also gave their names prominent architectural landmarks, e.g. Basilica Iulia in the Forum.
Recall that Gaius died in war; monuments were set up in his name. One status has him
represented in the same statuary pose as the Divus Iulius in his temple in the Forum
Romanum – this pose was later frequently used to represent heroized emperors and
princes after their death.
On the cuirassed statue of Gaius Caesar, as on the cuirass (breastplate) of Augustus, the
victory is placed in a cosmic setting; the prince victorious in the East extends his Victoria
to his ancestress Venus. Image of Gaius as victor of Armenia and Parthia draws allusions
to the victory at Actium and the Golden Age, in the form of sea centaurs holding rudders
and regular centaurs whose tails end as vines; in other words, the new victory of Gaius
assures the continuity of the well-being first created by Augustus at Actium.
Zanker: Augustus in the Guise of Jupiter 230-238
 Since Alexander the Great, Hellenistic world had rendered its rulers in the guise of
Zeus- at the same time, such representation is a flagrant contradiction of Augustus’
“Republican” style and cultured imagecommon explanations: images like that of the Gemma Augustae should be posthumously
dated to represent the deified Augustus or were luxury items intended to be seen by only
an inner circle, pieces of court art not to be taken seriously as a political statementZanker’s take:
Augustus’ admirers did not genuinely equate him with Jupiter or feel him to be a new
Jupiter-Augustus remained consistent in his adherence to the Principate and appeared to
the people as pontifex maximus and to Senate as a duly elected magistrateComparison with Jupiter, then, is an ALLEGORICAL symbol of his rule, celebrating it
as just, final, and all-embracing, like that of the supreme god“Augustus was the gods’ representative on earth. The image itself had a long and
distinguished tradition and better than any other conveyed the dazzling religious aura of
the rule.” Was a BORROWED image, though its meaning in the Roman context was not
compatible with its original connotation-DID NOT CONNOTE PHYSICAL PRESENCE
OF DIVINE POWER, as it had in the depiction of Hellenistic rulers-
were not masquerading as gods in style of Hellenistic rulers or Cleopatra and Antony
political style of Principate required emporere and his family to appear as Roman citizens,
in toga and stola- gods used like POETIC EPITHETS, and intellectualized formation of
virtues- NOT, as in Hellenistic art, as the direct realization of divinely inspired ruler
Gemma Augustea 10 BC (also pictured in lecture)
Augustus is enthroned as Jupiter, though he holds an augur’s staff instead of the
thunderbolt- he is seated beside Roma- [he is semi-nude, hearkening back to the divine
nudity of the Hellenistic tradition]- his gaze is directed towards Tiberius as he descends
from a chariot driven by Victoria-the lituus in Augustus’ hand indicates that Tiberius’
victory was won under the auspices of Augustus- also, Roma looks admiringly at
Augustus and not at the actual victors, suggesting that he had more to do with the victory
than they did- above Augustus’ head Capricorn shines in a disk (sun?), and a star signs in
the background symbols of cosmic and mythic predestinationBehind Augustus are personifications of the peaceful and joyous earth- kneeling is Italia
surrounded by children, holding a cornucopia, and wearing around her neck the bulla, a
token of a freeborn youthCameo of Livia Enthroned After 14 AD
Livia enthroned as both priestess and goddess- holds the bust of deified Augustus- stalks
of wheat, diadem with battlements, tympanon associate her with the goddesses Ceres and
Magna Mater- garment slipping from her shoulder liken her to Venus- enthroned like a
goddess, holding bust as if a priestess-
Zanker, 239-263
This chapter describes the changes that occured in Roman art following the battle of
Actium and around the time that other art forms were developing, such as literature.
Zanker notes that the Romans, by using Greek styles but adding their own ideals, were
trying to create a "superculture", the best of both worlds.
The archaic style, although disliked by the school of Classical artists, was still used in
Rome; For example, of the Temple of Apollo. The archaic style had religious
connotations and was used mostly for portrayal of the gods and mythology. Zanker notes
that the favorable reception of Archaic style indicates an element of pietas in the Roman
culture. Classical style, however, was considered more aesthetically pleasing and
beautiful, so a mix of aesthetics and religious piousness (such as an archaic statue with
classical elements) was a way to combine these elements.
Classical art, however, was more than just aesthetics. It was also viewed with moral
standards and a set of criteria emerged that seems to have drawn parallels between
literary and artistic styles. For example, statues were described as graceful or heroic, with
clarity, precision, and purity. The subtleties of their looks and actions were very
important. Also, the later distaste of Romans for nudity indicated their new system of
moral or values as associated with art.
The compositions in Classical art were also important and provide clues about Roman
tastes. They tended to show a lack of narrative and little movement and action, allowing
for an "openness of interpretation". Ambiguity and subtlety, rather than iconography, was
used to add interest.
The mixing of styles of art also points to an intellectual, rather than aesthetic use of the
classical style. For example, the mixing of elements from various styles on Augustan
temples is not classical, but was often labeled as such. However, this mixing of archaic
and classical did not last long and was later replaced by traditional classisicm. Mark
Antony prefered the Asiatic style (the severe archaic and classical), so Zanker posits that
his loss in the war may have helped cause this change.
The effects of Roman art on Athens is also considered in the end. Zanker indicates that
the moral and religious elements present in Roman art affected Greek art
Zanker 297-302
The Greeks reacted to the Roman Empire by applying the same Hellenistic ruler cult
standards to the new monarch (Augustus). The new political system was essentially the
same for them as previous ones of Alexander and Hellenistic Kings, and required little
adjustment. The imperial cult of Augustus spread via temples creating an association
between traditional religion and worship of the emperor. These cult places were a
constant visual reminder of the importance of continual worship.
Greeks had always linked rulers with traditional cults of the gods. The implementation of
this cult resulted in a more cohesive community between the Roman West and Greek
East. Augustus appeared on pictures, statues, coins and other honors. It is probably true
that the Greeks linked ancient gods and heroes to the emperor more than the Romans did.
Replicate portraits and statues of the emperor and his family were made by Greeks with
high fidelity. The copying process created a uniform conception of the emperor’s
appearance, so that even his clothing and hairstyle was idealized in public life. This
contributed greatly to the creation of a uniform imperial culture.
Zanker (302-315)
This section of Zanker focuses on the other cities in the Roman Empire, while
making a distinction between the Greek East and the Roman West, as the East was
particularly influenced by Hellenstic traditions. Nonetheless, the cult of the emperor,
both in the East and West was the principal vehicle for Augustan propaganda.
“The Imperial Cult: Competition Among Cities”
 Augustus rarely took the initiative to erect altars of Roma and Augustus, in
addition to other honors, throughout the provinces
 He insisted on maintaining the appearance of a “mere mortal” to his fellow
Romans
 Yet once Augustus granted permission to Greek provinces in Bithynia and Asia
for cult worship, widespread cults and honors spread rapidly
 Importance of cult worship: It created a direct link to the emperor
 For Augustus’ subjects it was an opportunity to express their allegiance by
elaborately commemorating his victories, the anniversary of his rule, or
births/deaths in the imperial family
 Large cities in the West generally had the means to honor Augustus as they
pleased
And yet, by the end of Augustus’ rule, nearly all cities in Italy or the western
provinces had several cults linked to the imperial house
 But as there was no tradition of ruler cult in the West, power political and social
pressures must have been operating here
 Examples of honors of the imperial cult include: temples, priests, games, statues,
sacrifices, etc.
 Competition among cities serve as a further example of the widespread worship of
the emperor
 Yet this early rivalry soon dissipated; after Augustus’ rule, the Senate became the
principal influence for cult worship of the emperor
“The Imperial Cult in the West”
 In Roman cities of the West approval for the new regime was especially strong
 The religious revival movement in Rome spilled over into other Italian cities
 Devotion and pietas were directed at Augustus, as opposed to traditional divinties
 Forms of worship were less explicit than in the East, but no less numerous and
elaborate
 For example: Festivals and sacrifices focused not directly on Augustus but on his
achievements and his divine power; erection of marble sanctuaries for the
imperial cult in numerous cities in the fashion of those built by Augustus in Rome;
and imitations of major monuments (i.e. Pax on the relief of the Ara Pacis)
 Iconography in provincial cities was borrowed directly from the “pictorial
vocabulary created in Rome”: vine friezes, motifs of the sacred, laurel or oak
leaves, arms and armor, allusions to the clipeus virtutis
 The meanings of these symbols were widely understood and their deference to
Augustus no less blatant that the imagery within Rome

(Zanker 316-33)
The Local Elite and the Augustan Program
Evidence of Augustus being worshipped is evident in temples made in parts of Empire
farther from Rome. Worship of Augustus as permissible only outside of Rome. Temples
usually included statue of Augustus, an in-scripted prayer for Augustus, and name of the
issuer of the statue.
Cities of Marble: The New Self-Assurance in the West
Noble families helped in the construction of theaters, roads, etc for towns outside of
Rome just as Augustus did for Rome under his cultural revival. In farther parts of Empire,
those families propagated the ruler cult because it allowed them to maintain their power
over the town/province. Construction included making monuments out of marble; any
monument, theater, edifice was decorated in immense detail.