Download Unit Two

Section One: Origins of the Cold War
READING FOCUS
• Why was 1945 a critical year in United States foreign relations?
• What were the postwar goals of the United States and the Soviet Union?
• How did the iron curtain tighten the Soviet Union's hold over Eastern Europe?
• How did the Truman Doctrine complement the policy of containment?
Setting the Scene
"I know you will not mind my being brutally frank when I tell you that I can personally handle Stalin," President
Roosevelt told Winston Churchill during World War II. "He thinks he likes me better, and I hope he will continue
to." By 1944, Roosevelt was so sure of Stalin's cooperation that he began calling the Soviet dictator "Uncle Joe."
A Roosevelt advisor later wrote that the President did not have "any real comprehension of the great gulf that
separated [their] thinking." Nor did he understand just what a wily and difficult adversary Stalin would turn out to
be. Churchill, however, clearly understood the situation. "Germany is finished," he declared. "The real problem is
Russia. I can't get the Americans to see it."
1945-A Critical Year
The wartime cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union was a temporary arrangement. There
had been a history of bad feelings between the two nations ever since the Russian Revolution of 1917. During that
revolt, President Wilson had dispatched American troops to Russia to support anti-communist resistance. The
United States had not even recognized the legal existence of the Soviet government until 1933. These actions
caused considerable resentment in the Soviet Union. As wartime allies, the Soviets disagreed bitterly with their
American and British partners over battle tactics and postwar plans. The United States was angered by the
'nonaggression pact that Stalin had signed with Hitler (which Hitler had broken), and Stalin was angry that the
Allies had not invaded Europe sooner, to take the pressure off the Russian front. As the end of the war
approached, relations between the Communist Soviet Union and the two Western democracies grew increasingly
tense.
Differences at Yalta
In February 1945, Roosevelt met with Stalin and Churchill at Yalta to work out the future of Germany and
Poland. They agreed on the division of Germany into American, British, French, and Soviet occupation zones.
(Later, the American, British, and French zones were combined to create West Germany. The Soviet zone became
East Germany.) Roosevelt and Churchill rejected Stalin's demand that Germany pay the Soviet Union $20 billion
in war damages.
At the meeting, Roosevelt pressed Stalin to declare war on Japan. The atomic bomb had not yet been tested, and
the President wanted Soviet help if an invasion of Japan became necessary. Stalin promised to enter the war
against Japan soon after Germany surrendered, in exchange for Soviet control over two Japanese islands.
Poland proved the most difficult issue at Yalta. The Red Army had occupied that country and supported the
Communist-dominated government. Stalin opposed the return of Poland's prewar government, then in exile in
London. Historically, Poland provided an invasion route into Russia, as Hitler had just demonstrated. The Polish
government, Stalin insisted, must be sympathetic to Soviet security needs. The Yalta meeting stalled until Stalin
agreed on elections to let Poles choose their government, using the Communist-dominated regime as a
framework. However, disputes about Poland were not over; they would continue to strain American-Soviet
Page | 1
relations for years to come.
The United Nations
One item on which the leaders at Yalta all agreed was the creation of the United Nations (UN), a new
international peacekeeping organization. The League of Nations, founded after World War I, had failed largely
because the United States refused to join. This time, policymakers got congressional support for the UN. In April
1945, delegates from 50 nations met in San Francisco to adopt a charter, or statement of principles, for the UN.
The charter stated that members would try to settle their differences peacefully and would promote justice and
cooperation in solving international problems. In addition, they would try to stop wars from starting and "take
effective collective measures" to end those that did breakout.
All member nations belonged to the UN's General Assembly. Representatives of 11(today it is 15) countries sat
on a Security Council. The United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France, and China had (and still have)
permanent seats on the Security Council and a veto over proposed policies.
Truman Takes Command
Roosevelt never lived to see his dream of the United Nations fulfilled. On April 12, 1945, just two weeks before
the UN's first meeting, the President died while vacationing at Warm Springs, Georgia. Although he was in poor
health and noticeably tired, his unexpected death shocked the nation. No one was more surprised than Vice
President Harry S Truman, who suddenly found himself President. Few Vice Presidents have been less prepared
to become President. Although he had spent ten years in Congress, Truman had been Vice President for only a
few months. Roosevelt had never involved him in major foreign policy discussions. Truman at first seemed
willing to compromise with the Soviets. But before long his attitude hardened.
The Potsdam Conference
Truman's first meeting with Stalin occurred in July 1945 in the Berlin suburb of Potsdam. During the conference,
Churchill was replaced by Clement Attlee, who had just won the British election. Thus, new representatives from
Britain and the United States now faced off against Stalin. They continued to debate the issues that had divided
them at Yalta, including the future of Germany and of Poland. Stalin renewed his demand for war payments from
Germany, and Truman insisted on the promised Polish elections. At Potsdam, Truman got word that the atom
bomb had been tested in New Mexico. Hoping to intimidate Stalin, Truman told him that the United States had a
new weapon of extraordinary force. Stalin, who already knew of the bomb from Soviet spies, simply nodded and
said that he hoped it would be put to good use. Stalin's casual manner hid his concern over America's new
strategic advantage.
Conflicting Postwar Goals
Shortly after Truman took office, he scolded the Soviet Foreign Minister, Vyacheslav Molotov, for the Soviet
Union's failure to allow Polish elections. Molotov was offended by Truman's bluntness. "I have never been talked
to like that in my life," Molotov protested. "Carry out your agreements and you won't get talked to like that,"
Truman snapped.
The American View
Tensions over Poland illustrated the differing views of the world held by American and Soviet leaders. Americans
had fought to bring democracy and economic opportunity to the conquered nations of Europe and Asia. The
United States hoped to see these goals achieved in the postwar world. An economically strong and politically
open world would also serve American interests by providing markets for its products. Therefore, the US found it
necessary to spread capitalism (free market economies). Arguably, it was more important to the US to spread
capitalism than it even was to spread democracy.
Page | 2
The Soviet View
After losing more than 17 million people during the war and suffering widespread destruction, the Soviet Union
was determined to rebuild in ways that would protect its own interests. One way was to establish satellite
nations, countries subject to Soviet domination, on the western borders of the Soviet Union that would serve as a
buffer zone against attacks. The Soviet Union also looked forward to the spread of communism throughout the
world. According to Communist doctrine, revolution to overthrow the capitalist system was inevitable, and the
role of Communist governments was to support and speed up these revolutionary processes in other countries.
Stalin thus refused to cooperate with new agencies such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund,
intended to help build strong capitalist economies. Instead, Stalin installed or supported totalitarian Communist
governments in Eastern Europe.
Soviets Tighten Their Hold
The Soviet Union quickly gained political control over nations that the Red Army had freed from the Nazis.
The promised elections in Poland did not take place for nearly two years. By that time, Poland’s Soviet-installed
government had virtually eliminated all political opposition. Similar actions were taken by Soviet-installed
governments throughout Eastern Europe.
Albania and Bulgaria
In Albania, Communist guerrilla forces had driven out the Germans by 1944.When elections were held the
following year, all anti-Communist leaders had been silenced. Soviet troops rolled into .Bulgaria in 1944, and the
Communists secured their hold on the country by 1948.
Czechoslovakia
The Czechs desperately tried to hold on to their democratic multiparty political system. The Communist candidate
won 40 percent of the vote in free elections in 1946, but Communist repression in neighboring nations hurt the
popularity of the Czech Communists. They plotted to take power, therefore, by replacing all non-Communist
police officers with party members. Sure of support from the Soviet Union, they also staged rallies, strikes, and a
violent uprising. By 1948, Czechoslovakia was a Soviet satellite nation.
Hungary and Romania
After Communist candidates lost elections in Hungary in late 1945, Soviet troops remained there and demanded
Communist control of the police. The arrest of anti-Communist leaders allowed the Communists to win new
elections held in 1947. The Red Army also stayed in Romania, and in 1945 the Soviets forced the Romanian king
to name a Communist as prime minister. Less than two years later, the prime minister forced the king to step
down.
East Germany
While the Western Allies wanted a strong, rebuilt Germany at the center of Europe, Stalin was determined that the
Germans would never threaten his nation again. He established national control of all East German resources and
installed a brutal totalitarian government there. In 1949, under the Communist government, the country became
known as the German Democratic Republic (even though it was not a democracy).
Finland and Yugoslavia – the exceptions
In spite of the Soviet successes occurring all around them, two countries did manage to maintain a degree of
independence from the Soviet Union. Finland signed a treaty of cooperation with the Soviets in 1948. The treaty
required Finland to remain neutral in foreign affairs but allowed it to manage its own domestic affairs. In
Yugoslavia, Communists gained control in 1945 under the leadership of Josip Broz, better known as Marshall
Tito. A fiercely independent dictator, Tito refused to take orders from Stalin, who unsuccessfully tried to topple
him in 1948. For the next three decades, Tito would pursue his own brand of communism relatively free from
Soviet interference.
Page | 3
The Iron Curtain
In a February 1946 speech, Stalin predicted the ultimate triumph of communism over capitalism. Yet he knew that
it would be years before the Soviets were strong enough militarily to directly confront the United States. In the
meantime, Stalin called on Communists to spread their system by other means. He established the Cominform,
an agency intended to coordinate the activities of Communist parties around the world. A month after Stalin's
speech, Winston Churchill responded. Although recently defeated for reelection as prime minister, Churchill
remained a powerful voice of opposition to the Soviet Union. Speaking in Fulton, Missouri, he condemned the
division of Europe that Stalin had already accomplished:
"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind
that line lie all the capitals of Central and Eastern Europe…The Communist parties, which were very small in all
these Eastern States of Europe, have been raised to preeminence and power far beyond their numbers and are
seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control...This is certainly not the Liberated Europe we fought to buildup.
Nor is it one which contains the essentials of permanent peace."
- "Iron Curtain" speech, Winston Churchill, March 5, 1946
Churchill also called on Americans to help keep Stalin from enclosing any more nations behind the iron curtain
of Communist domination and oppression. These two speeches of 1946-by Stalin and by Churchill-set the tone for
the Cold War, the competition that developed between the United States and the Soviet Union for power and
influence in the world. For nearly 50 years, until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Cold War was
characterized by political and economic conflict and military tensions. The rivalry stopped just short of a "hot"
war-a direct military engagement-between the two competing nations. However, United States military forces did
engage in combat in other nations as part of the American effort to defeat Soviet-supported uprisings and
invasions wherever they occurred. These smaller “hot wars” against Soviet-allies are known as proxy wars.
Containment
In a long telegram to the State Department in early 1946, George Kennan, atop American diplomat stationed in
Moscow, analyzed Soviet behavior and policy. Later, in an anonymous journal article, Kennan warned that the
Soviets had "no real faith in the possibility of a permanently happy coexistence of the Socialist and capitalist
worlds" and that they also believed in the inevitable triumph of communism. Therefore, Kennan concluded that
the Soviet Union "cannot be easily defeated or discouraged by a single victory on the part of its opponents ... but
only by intelligent long-range policies."
According to Kennan, the "United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of a long-term, patient but
firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."The American policy of containment emerged
from Kennan's analysis. This policy recognized the possibility that Eastern Europe was already lost to
communism. It called for the United States to resist Soviet attempts to form Communist governments elsewhere
in the world.
Critics saw containment as too moderate an approach to Soviet-American relations. They called for action to push
the Communists out of Eastern Europe, Russia, and anywhere else they had taken power. Kennan, however,
argued that the Soviet system "bears within it the seeds of its own decay" and would eventually crumble. Thus,
although containment remained controversial, it became the cornerstone of America's Cold War foreign policy.
The policy of containment would be the main US policy throughout the entire Cold War.
The Truman Doctrine
Page | 4
President Truman soon had an opportunity to apply the policy of containment. Since 1945, the Soviet Union had
been making threats against Turkey. Stalin wanted control of the Dardanelles, a narrow strait in Turkey that
would give Soviet ports on the Black Sea access to the Mediterranean. In addition, a civil war had broken out in
nearby Greece in the closing days of World War II. There, Communists fought to overthrow the government that
had returned to power after the Axis invaders had withdrawn.
Still suffering from the economic devastation of the war, Great Britain announced in February 1947 that it could
no longer afford to provide aid to Greece and Turkey. The British suggested that the United States take over
responsibility for defending the region. Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson reported that at that moment Great
Britain "handed the job of world leadership, with all its burdens and all its glory, to the United States."
State Department officials developed a plan to provide American aid to Greece and Turkey. To head off
congressional opposition, Acheson warned of grave dangers if the United States failed to act. "Only two great
powers remain in the world," he observed, "the United States and the Soviet Union."
In March 1947, in a speech before a joint session of Congress, Truman called on the United States to take a
leadership role in the world. In a statement of principles known as the Truman Doctrine, he established
another major policy that would guide American actions in the Cold War.
"Nearly every nation must choose between alternative ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one. One
way of life is based upon the will of the majority...The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority
forcibly imposed upon the majority...I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples
who are resisting attempted subjugation [conquest]by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that we
must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way."
-Truman Doctrine, March 12, 1947
Responding to Truman's appeal, Congress approved $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. In addition, the
United States soon established military bases in both countries. This was the first example of containment being
the basis of official US foreign policy. During the next four decades, the Truman Doctrine and the policy of
containment would lead the United States into controversial involvements in both "hot" and "cold" conflicts
around the world.
Page | 5
Section Two: Cold War “heats” up
READING FOCUS
• How did the Marshall Plan, the Berlin airlift, and NATO help to achieve American goals in postwar
Europe?
• What early Cold War events benefitted the Soviets? What early Cold War events benefitted the US?
Setting the Scene
The end of World War II caused a profound change in the way world leaders and ordinary citizens thought about
war. The devastation caused by the atomic bombs dropped on Japan and the efforts of the Soviet Union to acquire
similar weapons instilled fear in both East and West. In his last State of the Union address, President Truman
declared:
"We have entered the atomic age and war has undergone a technological change which makes it a very different
thing from what it used to be. War today between the Soviet empire and the free nations might dig the grave not
only of our Stalinist opponents, but· of our own society, our world as well as theirs ... Such a war is not a possible
policy for rational men." -President Harry S Truman
Anxiety about a "hot" and catastrophic nuclear war became a backdrop to the Cold War policies of both the
United States and the Soviet Union.
The Marshall Plan
In addition to worrying about the new threat of nuclear war, American policymakers were determined not to
repeat the mistakes of the post-World War I era. This time the United States would help restore the war-torn
nations so that they might create stable democracies and achieve economic recovery. World War II had devastated
Europe to a degree never seen before. About 21million people had been made homeless. In Poland, some 20
percent of the population had died. Nearly 1 of every 5 houses in France and Belgium had been damaged or
destroyed. Across Europe, industries and transportation were in ruins. Agriculture suffered from the loss of
livestock and equipment. In France alone, damage equaled three times the nation's annual income. Countries in
such a state of disarray were often susceptible to radicalization (i.e. Communism or Fascism) since the people
become desperate for solutions to their woes.
These conditions led to two fundamental shifts in American foreign policy that were designed to strengthen
European democracies and their economies. The first was the Truman Doctrine. The other was the Marshall
Plan, which called for the nations of Europe to draw up a program for economic recovery from the war. The
United States would then support the program with financial aid. The plan was unveiled by Secretary of State
George C. Marshall in 1947. The Marshall Plan was a response to American concerns that Communist parties
were growing stronger across Europe, and that the Soviet Union might intervene to support more of these
Communist movements. The plan also reflected the belief that United States aid for European economic recovery
would create strong democracies and open new markets for American goods. Marshall described his plan in a
speech at Harvard University in June 1947:
"It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to assist in the return of normal economic health
in the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is directed not
against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos. Its purpose should be the
revival of a working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which
free institutions can exist."
-Marshall Plan speech, George C. Marshall, June 5, 1947
Page | 6
The Soviet Union was invited to participate in the Marshall Plan, but it refused the help and pressured its satellite
nations to do so too. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov called the Marshall Plan a vicious American
scheme for using dollars to "buy its way" into European affairs. In fact, Soviet leaders did not want outside
scrutiny of their country's economy. In 1948, Congress approved the Marshall Plan, which was formally known as
the European Recovery Program. Seventeen Western European nations joined the plan: Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and West Germany. Over the next four years, the United States
allocated some $13 billion in grants and loans to Western Europe. The region's economies were quickly restored,
and the United States gained strong trading partners in the region. Without question, the Marshall Plan’s ulterior
motive was containment, and the Plan successfully slowed the spread of communism.
The Berlin Airlift
The Allies could not agree on what to do with Germany following World War II. In March 1948, the Western
Allies announced plans to make the zones they controlled in Germany into a single unit. The United States,
Britain, and France prepared to merge their three occupation zones to create a new nation, the Federal Republic
of Germany, or West Germany. The western part of Berlin, which lay in the Soviet zone, would become part of
West Germany. The Soviets responded in 1949 by forming a Communist state, the German Democratic Republic,
or East Germany. Capitalist West Berlin and Communist East Berlin became visible symbols of the developing
Cold War struggle between the Soviet Union and the Western powers. Hundreds of thousands of Eastern
Europeans left their homes in Communist-dominated nations, fled to East Berlin, and then crossed into West
Berlin'. From there they booked passage to freedom in the United States, Canada, or Western Europe. Stalin
decided to close this escape route by forcing the Western powers to abandon West Berlin. He found his excuse in
June 1948, when a new German currency was introduced in West Germany, including West Berlin. Stalin
considered the new currency and the new nation it represented to be a threat. The city of West Berlin-located
within East Germany-was a symbol of that threat. The Soviets used the dispute over the new currency as an
excuse to block Allied access to West Berlin. Stalin ordered the Berlin Blockade. (THIS IS NOT THE SAME
AS THE BERLIN WALL – the Wall wasn’t built until 1961)
All shipments to the city through East Germany were banned. The blockade threatened to create severe shortages
of food and other supplies needed by the 2.5 million people in West Berlin. Truman did not want to risk starting a
war by using military force to open the transportation routes. Nor did he want to give up West Berlin to the
Soviets. Instead, Truman decided on an airlift, moving supplies into West Berlin by plane. During the next 15
months, British and American military aircraft made more than 200,000 flights to deliver food, fuel, and other
supplies. At the height of the Berlin Airlift, nearly 13,000 tons of goods arrived in West Berlin daily.
The Soviets finally gave up the blockade in May 1949, and the airlift ended the following September. The Berlin
Blockade and Airlift became the first direct “conflict” of the Cold War between the US and the USSR. In the
case of the Airlift, the Soviets backed down. By that time, the Marshall Plan had helped achieve economic
stability in the capitalist nations of Western Europe, including West Germany. Berlin, however, remained a focal
point of East-West conflict.
NATO
In the early postwar period, the international community looked to the United Nations to protect nations from
invasion or destabilization by foreign governments, and to maintain world peace. However, the Soviet Union's
frequent use of its veto power in the Security Council prevented the UN from effectively dealing with a number of
postwar problems. Thus it became clear that Western Europe would have to look beyond the UN for protection
from Soviet aggression. In 1946, the Canadian foreign minister, Louis St. Laurent, proposed creating an
"association of democratic peace-loving states" to defend Western Europe and North America against attack by
Page | 7
the Soviet Union. American officials expressed great interest in St. Laurent's idea. Truman was determined to
prevent the United States from returning to pre-World War II isolationism. The Truman Doctrine and the
Marshall Plan soon demonstrated his commitment to making America a leader in postwar world affairs. Yet
Truman did not want the United States to be the only nation in the Western Hemisphere pledged to defend
Western Europe from the Communists. For this reason, a Canadian role in any proposed organization became
vital to American support.
Not all Americans agreed that such an organization was a good idea. Ohio Senator Robert Taft thought that the
pact was "not a peace program; it is a war program." He continued, "We are undertaking to arm half the world
against the other half. We are inevitably starting an armament race." On the other hand, Senator Tom Connally
favored joining such an association:
"From now on, no one will misread our motives or underestimate our determination to stand in defense of our
freedom...The greatest obstacle that stands in the way of complete recovery [from World War II] is the pervading
and paralyzing sense of insecurity. The treaty is a powerful antidote to this poison...With this protection afforded by
the Atlantic Pact, Western Europe can breathe easier again."
-Texas Senator Tom Connally, 1949
In April 1949, Canada and the United States joined Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Member nations agreed that "an armed attack against one or more of them ... shall be considered an attack against
them all." This principle of mutual military assistance is called collective security. Having dropped its opposition
to military treaties with Europe for the first time since the Monroe Doctrine, the United States now became
actively involved in European affairs. NATO became the first peace-time alliance that the US had joined in
modern history. This alliance still exists today (even though the USSR collapsed in the early-1990s). For example,
NATO is fighting alongside the US in the War on Terror in Afghanistan and around the world.
In 1955,the Soviet Union responded to the formation of NATO by creating the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance
with its satellite nations in Eastern Europe.
Communist Advances
In 1949, two events heightened American concerns about the Cold War. The first was President Truman's
terrifying announcement that the Soviet Union had successfully tested an atomic bomb. Then, just a few weeks
later, Communist forces took control of China.
The Soviet Atomic Threat
"We have evidence that within recent weeks an atomic explosion occurred in the USSR," Truman told reporters in
September 1949.The news jolted Americans. New York, Los Angeles, and other American cities were now in
danger of suffering the horrible fate of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Truman's response to the Soviet atomic threat
was to forge ahead with a new weapon to maintain America's nuclear superiority. In early 1950, he gave approval
for the development of a hydrogen, or thermonuclear bomb (H-Bomb) that would be many times more
destructive than the atomic bomb. The first successful thermonuclear test occurred in 1952, reestablishing the
United States as the world's leading nuclear power. However, the Soviets were already close to developing their
own H-Bomb. It became clear that the Cold War had developed a very dangerous arms race.
At about the same time, Truman organized the Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA). The new agency
flooded the nation with posters and other information about how to survive a nuclear attack. These materials
included plans for building bomb shelters and instructions for holding air raid drills in schools. Privately,
however, experts ridiculed these programs as almost totally ineffective. Not until the late 1950s did civil defense
become a more important federal government priority.
Page | 8
China Falls to the Communists
The Communist takeover of China also came as a shock to many Americans. However, in actuality the struggle
between China's Nationalists and Communists had been going on since the 1920s. During World War II, the
Communist leader Mao Zedong and the Nationalist (anti-Communist) leader Jiang Jieshi (also known as Chiang
Kai-shek) grudgingly cooperated to resist the invading Japanese. But the war also enabled Mao to strengthen his
forces and to launch popular political, social, and economic reforms in the regions of China that he controlled.
As World War II drew to a close, the fighting between the Communists and government forces resumed. The
Truman administration at first provided economic and military assistance to Jiang. Despite this aid, by 1947
Mao's forces had occupied much of China's countryside and had begun to take control of the northern cities.
When Jiang asked for more American help, Truman and his advisors concluded that Mao's takeover of China
probably could not be prevented. While continuing to give some aid to Jiang, the United States decided to focus
instead on saving Western Europe from Soviet domination.
In early 1949, China's capital of Peking (now Beijing) fell to the Communists. A few months later, Mao
proclaimed the creation of a Communist state, the People's Republic of China. The defeated Jiang and his
followers withdrew to the island of Taiwan (Formosa), off the Chinese mainland. There they continued as the
Republic of China, claiming to be the legitimate government of the entire Chinese nation. With American
support, the Republic of China also held on to China's seats in the UN's General Assembly and Security Council.
Many Americans viewed the "loss of China" as a stain on the record of the Truman administration. Members of
Congress and others who held this view called for greater efforts to protect the rest of Asia from communism.
Some Americans also began to suspect the loyalties of those involved in making military and foreign policy, even
though such speculation was completely without merit.
Page | 9
Section 3: The Korean War
READING FOCUS
• How did Communist expansion in Asia set the stage for the Korean War?
• Who fought in the Korean War, and what were the three stages of the war?
• What were the effects of the Korean War?
Setting the Scene
The Korean War is sometimes called America's forgotten war, but the soldiers who fought in Korea never forgot
it. In June of1950, American troops struggled to push back the Communists, who had made huge advances. One
American marine recalled the fierce fighting:
"To push the North Koreans back across the river we had to kick them off a series of ridges...It was straight uphill.
No cover. There were machine guns, mortars, grenades going off. The volume of fire was terrific. They were
pouring everything they had into us. Guys were cursing and yelling and dropping all around me..."-Arnold Winter
Later in 1950, both sides dug in to hold their positions. Infantryman Tom Clawson said later, "I didn't realize it at
the time, but when I got to Korea the war of movement had just ended. What they called the sitting war had taken
its place." He described what "the sitting war" was like:
"You spent hours every day improving your position, working on the foxholes and trenches and bunkers. But I
never liked to get too fancy, because sooner or later we'd be shifted to a different position...Most times [after going
on patrol] you'd return to the place you started from, but the day would always come when you wouldn't. You'd
come back and move directly to a new position. But all the positions were always somewhere on the same
ridgeline."-Tom Clawson
Although it lacked the glory of World War II and the turmoil of the Vietnam War, the Korean conflict had
important effects on the United States. This would be the US’s first proxy war of the larger Cold War.
Communist Expansion in Asia
While the attention of most Americans was focused on the Communist threat in Europe, events were unfolding in
Asia that would cause the Cold War to flare up into a "hot" military confrontation. The roots of this armed
conflict were found in the Chinese Civil War and in Japanese aggression in both China and Korea before and
during World War II.
The Chinese Civil War
The Chinese Civil War dated back to the aftermath of World War I, when the Communists and the Nationalists
fought for control of the country. By the late-1930s, the Nationalists and the Communists had cooperated to resist
invading Japanese forces, but after World War II the Chinese Civil War became more intense. The Nationalists
lost support because of their harsh treatment of the population, high taxes, and corruption. Mao's land reforms
and his promise of equality, as well as his military victories, led the Communists to power in 1949. The
Nationalists fled to Taiwan, where they still claimed to be the legitimate government of China.
Dividing Korea
In addition to seeking territory and influence in China before World War I, Japan had also annexed the Korean
peninsula. Japanese rule of Korea was harsh, and Koreans hoped that their nation would be restored after the
Japanese were finally defeated in World War II. However, the war ended before careful plans for Korean
independence could be worked out. In 1945, the Allies agreed on a temporary solution. Soviet soldiers accepted
Page | 10
the surrender of Japanese troops north of the 38th parallel, the latitude line running across Korea at
approximately the midpoint of the peninsula; American forces did the same south of the parallel. While the
dividing line was never intended to be permanent, Korea was divided-temporarily-into a Soviet-occupied northern
zone and an American-occupied southern zone. Soon a pro-American government, led by Syngman Rhee,
formed in South Korea and a Communist regime, led by Kim Il Sung, was established in North Korea.
Occupying forces withdrew from both zones in 1948 and 1949.
The Korean Conflict
Koreans on both sides of the dividing line wanted to unify their nation. In June1950, the Korean War broke out
when North Korean troops streamed across the 38th parallel, determined to reunite Korea by force. The invasion
took South Korea and the United States by surprise. It turned out-that the action had been orchestrated by the
Soviet Union. The fall of China to the Communists had been a shock to the United States; now it seemed as
though communism was on the advance again. Faced with what he viewed as a clear case of aggression, President
Truman was determined to respond. He recalled earlier instances "when the strong had attacked the weak."Each
time that the democracies failed to act, Truman remembered, it had encouraged the aggressors. "If this [invasion
of South Korea] was allowed to go unchallenged, it would mean a third world war, just as similar incidents
brought on the Second World War," Truman said.
The UN Police Action
After the ·defeat of the Chinese Nationalists in 1949,the United States had blocked Communist China's admission
to the United Nations. The Soviet delegation to the UN had walked out in protest, and thus could not exercise its
veto when President Truman brought the issue of North Korean aggression to the UN. The United States gained
unanimous approval for resolutions that branded North Korea an aggressor and that called on member states to
help defend South Korea and restore peace.
President Truman wasted no time. He commanded the American Seventh Fleet to protect Taiwan, and he ordered
American air and naval support for the South Koreans. Later he sent ground troops as well. Although Truman did
not go to Congress for a declaration of war as required by the Constitution, both Democrats and Republicans
praised him for his strong action. Members of the House stood and cheered when they heard of it. The UN set up
the United Nations Command and asked the United States to choose the commander of the UN forces. Eventually,
16 member nations contributed troops or arms, but Americans made up roughly 80 percent of the troops that
served in the UN police action in Korea.
Waging the War
A hero of two world wars and a strong anti-Communist, General Douglas MacArthur was Truman's choice to
lead the UN forces in Korea. MacArthur was based in Japan, where he headed the postwar occupation. He was
responsible for establishing Western democracy there and for creating Japan's new democratic constitution. He
had been less successful in implementing democracy in South Korea, where he also commanded American
occupation forces. There, MacArthur had supported Korean president Syngman Rhee, despite Rhee's brutal
elimination of his opponents. Despite a difficult personality, MacArthur was an excellent military strategist, and
he developed a bold plan to drive the invaders from South Korea. With Soviet tanks and air power, the North
Koreans had swept through South Korea. Only a small part of the country, near the port city of Pusan,
remained unconquered.
MacArthur suspected that the North Koreans' rapid advance had left their supply lines stretched thin. He decided
to strike at this weakness. After first sending forces to defend Pusan, in September of 1950, he landed troops at
Inchon in northwestern South- Korea and attacked enemy supply lines from behind. MacArthur's strategy
worked. Caught between UN forces in the north and in the south, and with their supplies cut off, the invaders fled
back across the 38th parallel. UN troops pursued them northward. American and South Korean leaders began to
Page | 11
boast of reuniting Korea under South Korean control. Such talk alarmed the Chinese Communists, who had been
in power less than a year and who did not want a pro-Western nation next door.
As UN troops approached North Korea's border with China, the Chinese warned them not to advance any farther.
MacArthur ignored the warning. On November 24, 1950, the general announced his "Home by Christmas"
offensive, designed to drive the enemy across the North Korean border at the Yalu River into China and end the
war.
However, Chinese troops poured across the Yalu to take the offensive. The Chinese and the North Koreans
pushed the UN forces back into South Korea. A stalemate developed. MacArthur favored -breaking-the stalemate
by opening a second front. He wanted the Chinese opposition forces of Jiang Jieshi on the island of Taiwan to
return to the mainland to attack the Chinese Communists.
Truman opposed this strategy, fearing it could lead to a widespread war in Asia that would involve the USSR and
their atomic weapons. Unable to sway Truman, MacArthur sent a letter to House Minority Leader Joseph Martin
in March 1951, attacking the President's policies. Martin made the letter public. On April 11, Truman fired
MacArthur for insubordination. Truman was able to keep the war limited. However, the struggle dragged on for
over two more years, into the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. When peace talks stalled, Eisenhower's
threat to use atomic weapons got the talks going again. Finally, a truce was signed in 1953, leaving Korea divided
at almost exactly the same place as before the war, near the 38th parallel.
The Effects of the Korean War
Korea is still divided at the 38th parallel today. North Korea is still communist and is controlled by the Kim
Dynasty (leadership passed from Kim Il Sung to his son, Kim Jong Il, and finally to his grandson, Kim Jong Un).
South Korea has grown into a thriving free-market democracy. Even with the collapse of the USSR, North Korea
remains a threat to world peace and is considered an enemy of the United States. This explains why the DMZ at
the 38 parallel is the most heavily fortified border in the world.
The Korean War caused enormous frustration for the United States. Americans wondered why roughly 54,000 of
their soldiers had been killed and 103,000 wounded for such limited results. They questioned whether their
government was serious about stopping communism. On the other hand, Communist forces had been pushed back
beyond the 38th parallel. What's more, this containment had occurred without nuclear war. It seemed that
Americans would have to get used to more limited wars and Americans would have to get used to other changes
as well.
One change was in the military itself. Although President Truman had ordered the integration of the armed forces
in 1948, the Korean War was the first war in which white Americans and African Americans served in the same
units. The Korean War also led to a huge increase in military spending. The military had taken less than a third of
the federal budget in 1950; a decade later, military spending made up about half of federal expenditures. At the
same time, the United States came to accept the demands of permanent mobilization. Over a million American
soldiers were stationed around the world. At home, the military establishment became more powerful as it
developed links to the corporate and scientific communities. These ties created a powerful military-industrial
complex that employed 3.5 million Americans by 1960.
The Korean War also helped to shape future U.S. policy in Asia. Hoping that Japan could help to maintain the
balance of power in the Pacific, the United States signed a peace treaty with that nation in September 1951. In
addition, the Korean War further poisoned relations with Communist China, leading to a diplomatic standoff that
would last more than 20 years, until the 1970s.
Page | 12
Section 4: Fear in the US during the Cold War
READING FOCUS
• How the fear impact American life during the Cold War?
• What were the characteristics of the McCarthy era?
The Cold War at Home
Throughout the Great Depression, tens of thousands of Americans had joined the Communist Party, which was a
legal organization. Many were desperate people who had developed serious doubts about the American capitalist
system, partly because of the economic collapse of the 1930s. Others were intellectuals who were attracted to
Communist ideals. After World War II, improved economic times, as well as the increasing distrust of Stalin,
caused many people to become disillusioned with communism. Most American Communists quit the party,
although some remained members, whether active or not. Now, as a new Red Scare began to grip America, their
pasts came back to haunt them.
During the presidencies of Truman and his successor, Dwight D. Eisenhower, concern about the growth of world
communism raised fears of a conspiracy to overthrow the government, particularly when a number of Communist
spies were caught and put on trial. These fears launched an anti-Communist crusade that violated the civil
liberties of many Americans. Anyone who had ever had Communist party ties and many who had never even been
Communists were swept up in the wave of persecutions.
The Loyalty Program
As the Truman administration pursued its containment policy abroad, government officials launched programs to
root out any element of communism that might have infiltrated the United States. Exposure of a number of
wartime spy rings in 1946 increased the anxiety of many Americans. (In recent years, new evidence of Soviet
infiltration has come to light. It is known, for instance, that Soviet spies gathered information on the United States
nuclear program that helped the Soviet Union advance its own atomic development.)
When Republicans made big gains in the 1946 congressional elections, Truman worried that his rivals would take
political advantage of the loyalty issue. To head off this possibility, he began his own investigation, establishing a
federal employee loyalty program in 1947. Under this program, all new employees hired by the federal
government were to be investigated. In addition, the FBI checked its files for evidence of current government
employees who might be engaged in suspicious activities. Those accused of disloyalty were brought before a
Loyalty Review Board. While civil rights were supposed to be safeguarded, in fact those accused of disloyalty to
their country often had little chance to defend themselves. Rather than being considered innocent until proven
guilty, they found that the accusation alone made it difficult to clear their names. The Truman program examined
several million government employees, yet only a few hundred were actually removed from their jobs.
Nonetheless, the loyalty program added to a climate of suspicion taking hold in the nation.
HUAC
As the Loyalty Review Board carried out its work, Congress pursued its own loyalty programs. The House UnAmerican Activities Committee, known as HUAC, had been established in 1938 to investigate disloyalty on the
eve of World War II. Now it began a postwar probe of Communist infiltration of government agencies and, more
spectacularly, a probe of the Hollywood movie industry. Claiming that movies had tremendous power to influence
the public, in 1947HUAC charged that numerous Hollywood figures had Communist leanings that affected their
filmmaking. In fact, some Hollywood personalities were or had been members of the Communist Party. Others in
the industry had openly supported various causes and movements with philosophical similarities to
communism(which, of course, did not make them Communists or disloyal in any way). With government
Page | 13
encouragement, Hollywood had also produced some movies favorable to the Soviet Union and its people. These
films had been made during the war, when the United States and the Soviet Union had been allies. Many movie
stars protested HUAC's attitude and procedures. Actor Frederic March asked Americans to consider where it all
could lead: "Who's next? . . . Is it you, who will have to look around nervously before you can say what's on your
mind? ... This reaches into every American city and town."
The Hollywood Ten
In September and October of 1947, HUAC called a number of Hollywood writers, directors, actors, and
producers to testify. They were a distinguished group, responsible for some of Hollywood's best films of the
previous decade. Facing the committee, celebrities who were accused of having radical political association had
little chance to defend themselves. The committee chairman, Republican Representative J. Parnell Thomas of
New Jersey, first called witnesses who were allowed to make accusations based on rumors and other flimsy
evidence. Then the accused were called. Over and over the committee asked, "Are you now or have you ever been
a member of the Communist Party?"When some of those called before HUAC attempted to make statements, they
were denied permission. Invoking their Constitutional rights, ten of the accused declined to answer the
committee's questions. The Hollywood Ten were cited for contempt of Congress and served jail terms ranging
from six months to a year.
The HUAC investigations had a powerful impact on filmmaking. Nervous motion picture executives denounced
the Hollywood Ten for having done a disservice to their industry. The studios compiled a blacklist (under
government pressure), a list circulated among employers, containing the names of persons who should not be
hired. Many other entertainment figures were added to the Hollywood blacklist simply because they seemed
subversive or because they opposed the idea of a blacklist. The list included actors, screenwriters, directors, and
broadcasters. In the past, Hollywood had been willing to make movies on controversial subjects such as racism
and anti-Semitism. Now studios resisted all films dealing with social problems and concentrated on pure
entertainment.
The McCarran Internal Security Act
While HUAC carried out its work in the House, Democrat Pat McCarran led a Senate hunt for Communists in the
movie industry, labor unions, the State Department, and the UN. In 1950, Senator McCarran sponsored a bill that
would allow for government persecution of any groups or individuals who “supported” totalitarianism,
communism, or anarchism. This bill became known as The McCarran Internal Security Act. Also, Senator
McCarran became convinced that most disloyal Americans were immigrants from Communist-dominated parts of
the world. At his urging, Congress passed the McCarran-Walter Act in 1952. This law reaffirmed the quota
system for each country that had been established in 1924. It discriminated against potential immigrants from
Asia and from Southern and Central Europe. President Truman vetoed McCarran's bill, calling it "one of the most
un-American acts I have ever witnessed in my public career." Congress, however, passed the bill over the
President's veto.
Spy Cases Inflame the Nation
Two famous spy cases helped fuel the suspicion that a conspiracy within the United States was helping foreign
Communists gain military and political successes overseas. In 1948, HUAC (led at the time by a young Richard
Nixon) investigated Alger Hiss, who had been a high-ranking State Department official before he left
government service. Whittaker Chambers, a former Communist who had become a successful Time magazine
editor, accused Hiss of having been a Communist in the 1930s. Hiss denied the charge and sued Chambers for
slander. Chambers then declared that Hiss had been a Soviet spy. Too much time had passed for the spying charge
to be pressed. After two trials, Hiss was convicted of lying to a federal grand jury investigating him for espionage,
however. In 1950, he went to prison for four years. Not all Americans were convinced that he was guilty, and the
case was debated for years. Soviet documents released in the 1990s seem to provide ample evidence that Hiss was
actually a spy. Still, even at the time, the case seemed to prove that there was a real Communist threat in the
United States.
Page | 14
Several months after Hiss's conviction, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, a married couple who were members of the
Communist Party, were accused of passing atomic secrets to the Soviets during World War II. After a highly
controversial trial, the Rosenbergs were convicted of espionage and executed in1953. The case was another event
that inflamed anti-Communist passions and focused attention on a possible internal threat to the nation's security.
Like the Hiss case, the Rosenbergs' convictions were debated for years afterward. Careful work by historians in
once-classified American records and in secret Soviet records opened at the end of the Cold War indicate that
both Alger Hiss and Julius Rosenberg were guilty. While Ethel Rosenberg may have had some knowledge of her
husband's activities, it now appears that she was not guilty of espionage.
McCarthyism, The new “witch-hunt”
In 1950, it seemed, to many Americans, that Senator Joseph McCarthy's sensational charges of communist
infiltration throughout the US government could very well be accurate. However, his famous list of 205 “known”
State Department Communists turned out to be the names of people who were still employed by the government
after satisfactorily presenting themselves as “loyal” agents. When pressed for details, the senator reduced the
number from 205 to 57. Nevertheless, McCarthy's accusations sparked an anti-Communist hysteria and national
search for subversives that caused suspicion and fear across the nation.
McCarthy's Rise to Power
Joseph McCarthy's first term in the Senate had been undistinguished and he needed an issue to arouse public
support. He found that issue in the menace of communism. Piling baseless accusations on top of improvable
charges, McCarthy took his crusade to the floor of the Senate and engaged in the smear tactics that came to be
called McCarthyism. Not only was McCarthy reelected, but he became chairman of an investigations
subcommittee. Merely being accused by McCarthy caused people to lose their jobs and reputations. McCarthy
soon took on larger targets. He attacked former Secretary of State George Marshall, a national hero and a man of
unquestioned integrity. McCarthy claimed that Marshall was involved in "a conspiracy so immense and an infamy
so black as to dwarf any previous venture in the history of man," because of his inability to stop the Communist
triumph in China.
Even other senators came to fear McCarthy. They worried that opposition to his tactics would brand them as
Communist sympathizers. But there were a few exceptions. As early as June 1950, Republican Senator Margaret
Chase Smith of Maine presented a Declaration of Conscience to the Senate. She denounced McCarthy for having
"debased" the Senate "to the level of a forum of hate and character assassination sheltered by the shield of
congressional immunity..."
McCarthy's Fall
In early 1954, when one of his assistants was drafted, McCarthy charged that even the army was full of
Communists. Army officials, in turn, charged McCarthy with seeking' special treatment for his aide. As charges
and countercharges flew back and forth, the senator's subcommittee voted to investigate the claims. The ArmyMcCarthy hearings began in late April 1954. Democrats asked that the hearings be televised, hoping that the
public would see McCarthy for what he was. Ever eager for publicity, the senator agreed. For weeks, Americans
were riveted to their television sets. Most were horrified by McCarthy's bullying tactics and baseless allegations.
By the time the hearings ended in mid -June, the senator had lost even his strongest supporters. The Senate
formally condemned him for his reckless actions. Unrepentant, McCarthy charged his accusers with being tools of
the Communists, but he no longer had credibility. Although McCarthy remained in the Senate, his power was
gone. Eventually this Second Red Scare, much like the one that followed World War I, subsided. But the nation
was damaged by the era's suppression of free speech and open, honest debate.
Page | 15
Section 5: The Cold War Expands in the 1950s
READING FOCUS
• How was the Cold War waged in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America during the
1950s?
• How did the arms race develop?
The Cold War in the 1950s
American Cold War policy entered a new phase when Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower became President in
1953. Eisenhower's Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, was a harsh anti-Communist who considered winning
the Cold War to be a moral crusade. Dulles believed that Truman's containment policy was too cautious. Instead,
he called for a policy to roll back communism where it had already taken hold. As a military leader, Eisenhower
recognized the risks of confronting the Soviets. He acted as a brake on Dulles's more extreme views. In
Eisenhower's judgment, the United States could not intervene in the affairs of the Soviet Union's Eastern
European satellites. So when East Germans revolted in 1953,and Poles and Hungarians in 1956, the United States
kept its distance as Soviet troops crushed the uprisings. Eisenhower felt that any other response risked war with
the Soviet Union. He wanted to avoid that at all costs. Covert operations, led by the CIA, were done in order to
accomplish more aggressive containments without the general population being aware of such tactics. Thus
containment remained an important part of American foreign policy in the 1950s.
Southeast Asia
In July 1953, Eisenhower fulfilled a campaign promise to bring the Korean War to an end, with the signing of the
Armistice. The sudden death of Stalin in March and the rapid rise of more moderate Soviet leaders contributed to
the resolution of this conflict. Meanwhile, the United States continued to provide substantial military aid to
France, which was trying to retain control of its colony, Vietnam. When an international conference divided
Vietnam, like Korea, into a Communist north and an anti-Communist south, the United States provided aid to
South Vietnam, but for the time being-resisted greater involvement.
The Middle East
The Cold War was also played out in the historic tensions of the Middle East. In the 1930s and 1940s, the
Holocaust had forced many Jews to seek safety in Palestine, the Biblical home of the Jewish people, now
controlled by the British. Calls for a Jewish state intensified. In 1947, the British turned the question over to the
UN, which created two states in the area, one Jewish and one Arab. In May 1948, the Jews in Palestine
proclaimed the new nation of Israel. Israel's Arab neighbors, who also viewed Palestine as their ancient
homeland, attacked the Jewish state in 1948. Israel repelled the Arab assault, and the UN mediated new borders.
As Arab hostility to the idea of a Jewish state continued, the United States supported Israel, while the Soviet
Union generally backed Arab interests.
Meanwhile, the United States also worked to prevent oil-rich Arab nations from falling under the influence of the
Soviet Union. In 1952, a nationalist leader, Dr. Muhammad Mossadegh, gained control in Iran. Fearful that he
would be neutral -or worse, sympathetic to Communism –the United States backed groups that overthrew the
nationalist government and restored the pro-American Shah of Iran to power.
Another example of tension was the Suez Crisis of 1956. When Egypt's ruler, Gamal Abdel Nasser, sought
Soviet support, the United States and Great Britain cut off their aid to Egypt. Nasser responded by seizing the
British-owned Suez Canal. This canal was a vital waterway that passed through Egypt and allowed Middle East
oil to reach Europe via the Mediterranean. In late 1956, British and French forces attacked Egypt to regain control
of the canal, despite prior assurances they would not rely on force. Reacting to Soviet threats of "dangerous
consequences, "a furious Eisenhower persuaded his NATO allies to withdraw from Egypt, which retained control
Page | 16
of the canal. To combat further Soviet influence in the Middle East, the President announced the Eisenhower
Doctrine in January 1957. This policy stated that the United States would use force "to safeguard the
independence of any country or group of countries in the Middle East requesting aid against [Communistinspired] aggression." Eisenhower used his doctrine in 1958 to justify landing troops in Lebanon to put down a
revolt against its pro-American government.
Latin America
The United States also acted to support pro-American governments and to suppress Communist influences in
Latin America, especially where American companies had large investments. Since the mid- 1920s,the United
States had exercised control over the economies of some ten Latin American nations. In Central America, United
States troops had invaded Nicaragua and Honduras to prop up leaders who supported American interests. In 1947,
the United States signed the Rio Pact, a regional defense alliance with 18 other nations in the Western
Hemisphere. The next year, the United States led the way in forming the Organization of American States (OAS)
to increase cooperation among the nations of the hemisphere.
In 1954, the CIA helped overthrow the government of Guatemala on the grounds that its leaders were
sympathetic to radical causes. The CIA takeover restored the property of an American corporation, the United
Fruit Company, which had been seized by the Guatemalan government. Such actions fueled a Soviet perception
that America was escalating the Cold War.
The Arms Race
Throughout the 1950s, the United States and the Soviet Union waged an increasingly intense struggle for world
leadership. Nowhere was this competition more dangerous than in the arms race, the struggle to gain weapons
superiority.
The Growth of Nuclear Arsenals
In August 1953, less than a year after the United States exploded its first thermonuclear device, the Soviet Union
successfully tested its own hydrogen bomb. As part of the policy of deterrence begun by President Truman,
Eisenhower stepped up American weapons development. Deterrence is the policy of making the military power
of the United States and its allies so strong that no enemy would dare attack for fear of retaliation.
Between 1954 and 1958, the United States conducted 19 hydrogen bomb tests in the Pacific. One of these
explosions, in March 1954, was over 750 times more powerful than the atomic bomb that had been dropped on
Nagasaki in World War II. Japanese fishermen some 90 miles from the blast suffered severe radiation burns. The
test was a chilling warning that nuclear war could threaten the entire world with radioactive contamination.
Brinkmanship
American policymakers used the fear of nuclear war to achieve their Cold War objectives. In 1956, Secretary of
State John Dulles made it clear that the United States was prepared to risk war to protect its national interests.
Dulles explained the policy of brinkmanship this way: "The ability to get tot he verge without getting into the
war is the necessary art. If you cannot master it, you inevitably get into war. If you try to run away from it, if you
are scared to go to the brink, you are lost."
Many Americans agreed with the reaction of Democratic leader Adlai Stevenson: "I am shocked that the
Secretary of State is willing to play Russian roulette with the life of our nation." Still, the Eisenhower
administration relied on the policy of brinkmanship.
Cold War in the Skies
To carry hydrogen bombs to their targets, American military planners relied mainly on airplanes. Unable to match
this strength, the Soviets focused on long-range rockets known as intercontinental ballistic missiles, or ICBMs.
Page | 17
Americans also worked to develop ICBMs. However, in part because of its dependence on conventional air
power, the United States lagged behind the Soviet Union in missile development.
The size of this technology gap became apparent in 1957, when the Soviets used one of their rockets to launch
Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. The realization that the rocket used to launch Sputnik could
carry a hydrogen bomb to American shores added to American shock and fear. The arms race was about to take
on a new component: the space race.
In May 1960, the Soviet military again demonstrated its arms capabilities by using a guided missile to shoot down
an American U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory. Because these spy planes flew more than 15 miles high,
American officials had assumed that they were invulnerable to attack. The U-2 incident shattered this confidence,
and made Americans willing to expend considerable resources to catch up to-and surpass- the Soviet Union.
One legacy of the Cold War was the creation of what Eisenhower called a "permanent armaments industry of vast
proportions." As he left office, he warned that the existence of this military-industrial complex, employing
millions of Americans and having a financial stake in war-making, could become a threat to peace:
“Our arms must be mighty, ready for instant action...We recognize the imperative need for this development. Yet
we must not fail to comprehend its grave implications...[In] government, we must guard against the acquisition of
unwarranted [unnecessary] influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. The
potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist."
- Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address, 1961
Page | 18
Section 6: Economy of the 1950s
/"
READING FOCUS
• How did businesses reorganize after World War II?
• How did technology transform life after World War II?
• In what ways did the nation's work force change following World War II?
• Why did suburbs and highway systems grow after World War II?
• How did postwar conditions affect consumer credit?
Setting the Scene
When American soldiers returned from the battlefields, they wanted to put the horrors of the war behind them and
enjoy the comforts of home. During the war, many items were rationed or not produced at all. Many people had
simply put their money into savings. Now most Americans were eager to acquire everything the war-and before
that, the Depression-had denied them. The marriage rate increased dramatically after the war, and the population
boomed. Fueled by a growing economy, suburbs sprang up with look-alike houses in answer to a postwar housing
shortage. Suburban families enjoyed incomes that were considerably higher than those in rural communities. They
spent large sums of money on recreation. By the end of the 1950s, about 75 percent of families owned a car, and
even more owned a TV set. America's consumer economy was thriving.
Businesses Reorganize
During the postwar years, the United States embarked on one of its greatest periods of economic expansion. The
gross national product(GNP) more than doubled, jumping from $212 billion in 1945 to $504 billion in 1960.Per
capita income, the average annual income per person, increased from$1,223 to $2,219 during the same period.
Major corporate expansion accompanied economic growth. Industrialists fully intended to provide consumers the
goods they desired, as they reconverted their businesses to civilian production at the end of the war. At the same
time, American industry had benefited from technological advances made during the war. Research and
development-funded by the government helped create a variety of new products, such as radar and the computer
that could be used in the civilian economy.
In the 1950s, a few large firms dominated many industries. General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler overshadowed all
competitors in the automobile industry; General Electric and Westinghouse enjoyed similar positions in the
electrical industry. The Great Depression, however, had made many giant corporations wary of investing all their
resources in a single business. A conglomerate, a corporation made up of three or more unrelated businesses, was
better able to defend against economic downturns. For this reason, some corporations chose to become
conglomerates. In the event one industry or area of the economy failed, the conglomerate could rely on its
earnings in another industry. International Telephone and Telegraph, for example, purchased Avis Rent-a-Car,
Sheraton Hotels, Hartford Fire Insurance, and Continental Banking. At the same time, another kind of expansion
took place. In1954, salesman Ray Kroc was amazed when two brothers who owned a restaurant in San
Bernardino, California, gave him an order for their eighth Multimixer, a brand of milkshake machine. Because of
the restaurant's fast, efficient service and its prime location along a busy highway, it was experiencing great
success. Intrigued by the possibilities, Kroc purchased the two brothers' idea of assembly-line food production. He
also acquired the restaurant McDonald's. Kroc built a nationwide chain of fast-food restaurants by selling eager
entrepreneurs the right to open a franchise-a business that contracts to offer certain goods and services from a
larger parent company. Franchise agreements vary from one company to the next, but generally the contracts
allow each owner to use the company's name, suppliers, products, and production methods. Each franchise, then,
is operated as a small business whose owners profit from the parent company's guidance. Franchise owners
assume less risk than small business owners, in that they sell a product that is well known-and presumably liked
by the consumer. Many other restaurant franchises followed.
Page | 19
Technology Transforms Life
Meanwhile, developments in technology spurred industrial growth. Rushing to keep up with demand, businesses
produced hundreds of new products, such as dishwashers and gas-powered lawnmowers, aimed at saving the
consumer time and money. Eager Americans filled their homes with the latest inventions.
Television
Americans fell in love with television in the 1950s. The technology for television had been developed throughout
the late 1920s and 1930s, but then stalled during the war. After World War II, television became enormously
popular. In 1955, the average American family watched television four to five hours a day. Children grew up on
such programs as Howdy Doody and The Mickey Mouse Club. Teenagers danced to rock-and-roll music played on
American Bandstand) a forerunner to today's MTV. Other viewers followed comedies, including I Love Lucy and
Father Knows Best. Three large networks controlled television programming. As had been the case with radio,
they raised the money to broadcast their shows by selling advertising time. Television became a powerful new
medium for advertisers, allowing them to reach millions of viewers. As a result, Americans watched their favorite
shows interrupted by commercials, a practice that continues today.
The Computer Industry
Another innovation appeared in the 1950sthat would transform American life in the years to come. Wartime
research led to the development of ever more powerful calculators and computers. During the 1950s, American
businesses reached out to embrace the computer industry.
In 1947, scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratories invented the first transistor, a tiny circuit device that amplifies,
controls, and generates electrical signals. The transistor could do the work of a much larger vacuum tube, but took
up less space and generated less heat. The transistor could be used in radios, computers, and other electronic
devices, and greatly changed the electronics industry. Because of the transistor, giant machines that once filled
whole rooms could now fit on a desk.
Nuclear Power
An entirely new industry, the generation of electrical power through the use of atomic energy, resulted from the
research that had produced the atomic bomb. Nuclear fission, which involves splitting uranium or plutonium
atoms, could produce a huge explosion if the reaction occurred quickly. But fission, carefully controlled, could
also produce heat to generate steam and drive electrical turbines. In 1954, the Navy produced the first nuclearpowered submarine, which had a small reactor in the hull. The submarine's technology provided a model for the
first nuclear power plant on land, which opened in Shippingport, Pennsylvania, in 1957.
Advances in Medicine
Americans also found hope in developments made in medicine. In 1954, Dr. Jonas Salk and Dr. Thomas Francis
conducted a successful field test of a vaccine to prevent one of the most feared diseases-poliomyelitis. Before the
vaccine, the disease, known commonly as polio, had killed or disabled more than 20,000 children in the United
States every year. Franklin D. Roosevelt suffered the effects of polio throughout much of his life. Salk's injected
vaccine, together with an oral version developed later by Dr. Albert Sabin, effectively eliminated the threat of
polio.
Research in the development of drugs used to fight bacterial infections had been underway long before the start of
World War II. By 1944, advances in the production of antibiotics such as penicillin were saving countless lives.
During the 1950s, doctors discovered other antibiotics that were effective against penicillin-resistant bacteria.
Doctors who had served during the war saving the lives of wounded soldiers helped usher in a new era of surgical
advances. Surgical techniques developed during the war allowed doctors to correct heart defects, and the specialty
of heart surgery grew rapidly.
Page | 20
Changes in the Work Force
In earlier years, most Americans made a living as blue-collar workers, producing goods or performing services
that depended on manual labor. After the war, however, new machines assumed many of the jobs previously
performed by people. This process is called automation. Some blue-collar workers learned new skills and found
white-collar jobs. Young people, particularly former servicemen with new college degrees, also chose whitecollar jobs as they joined the workforce. Corporate expansion meant that more people were needed to keep
growing organizations running. By 1956, a majority of American workers held white-collar jobs, managing
offices, working in sales, and performing professional and clerical duties with little manual labor. The growth of
the service industry had a great effect on the lives of Americans. The new white-collar workers felt encouraged by
the working conditions they found: the buildings were clean, the offices bright. Physically, the work was less
exhausting than blue-collar labor, it was not as dangerous, and some workers had the opportunity to rise into
executive positions. But office jobs had their drawbacks. Employment in large corporations was often impersonal.
White-collar workers in large companies had less connection with the products and services that their companies
provided. Employees sometimes felt pressure to dress, think, and act alike. Postwar prosperity also brought bluecollar workers into the expanding middleclass. Starting in the 1940s, their wages and working conditions
improved. Some workers won important gains, such as cost-of-living increases, designed to adjust wages to keep
up with the rate of inflation. By 1955, nearly 33 percent of the total labor force in the United States was
unionized. In that year, the two largest unions, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of
Industrial Organizations (CIO), merged. The new and more powerful organization, called the AFL-CIO, remains
a major force today.
Suburbs and Highways
With so many people working and making a better living than ever before, the babyboom that had begun in the
mid-1940s continued. The birthrate soared and the baby boom generation would become the largest in US history.
Moving to the Suburbs
Seeking more room, growing families retreated from aging cities to the suburbs. World War II veterans expanded
their opportunities with the help of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, or GI Bill of Rights, which gave
them low-interest mortgages to purchase new homes and provided them with educational stipends for college or
graduate school. With more people purchasing homes, builders like William J. Levitt began to cater to the
demand for housing. Levitt mass-produced houses in suburban communities and was able to sell them for
reasonable prices. These communities became known as Levittowns.
Suburban growth brought with it other changes. Following their customers, some stores began to move from cities
to shopping centers located in the suburbs. Many Americans, living in suburbs built beyond the reach of public
transportation, depended more and more on automobiles. To meet the demand, automakers started introducing
new car designs every year. People eagerly awaited the unveiling of the latest models. During the 1950s,
American automakers produced up to 8 million new cars each year. From 1948 to 1958, passenger car sales
increased by more than 50 percent. Growth in the car industry created a need for more and better roads. The 1956
Federal-Aid Highway Act-sometimes called the Interstate Highway Act-provided $25 billion to build an
interstate highway system more than 40,000 miles long. The project provided a national web of new roads and
theoretically allowed for the evacuation of major cities in the event of nuclear attack. The car culture inspired the
development of many new businesses including gas stations, repair shops, and parts stores
The Growth of Consumer Credit
Eager to cash in on the increasing number of cars on the road, gasoline companies began offering credit cards to
loyal customers. These cards allowed people to charge gas purchases. Americans found the cards convenient and
easy to use. Lending agencies picked up the credit card idea and made borrowing easy. Credit cards encouraged
frivolous spending. Total consumer credit debt rose from more than $8 billion in 1946 to more than $56 billion in
1960.The United States had become, in the words of economist John Kenneth Galbraith, "the affluent society."
Page | 21
Section 7: Social Issues of the 1950s
READING FOCUS
• Why were comfort and security so important to Americans in the 1950s?
• What were the accepted roles of men and women during the 1950s?
• How did some people challenge conformity during the 1950s?
Setting the Scene
Most Americans were comfortable during the 1950s. They valued security over adventure, reflecting the mood of
a nation still recovering from years of economic depression and war. Americans applauded the apparent harmony
between individuals and groups in the United States that conformity seemed to encourage. Compromise, rather
than conflict, was the way disagreements could be settled. People wanted to enjoy their newly won prosperity and
provide even better opportunities for their children.
Youth Culture
Some called the youth of the 1950s the "silent generation."The silent generation seemed to have little interest in
the problems and crises of the larger world. The strong economy of the 1950s allowed more young people to stay
in school rather than having to leave early to find a job. Before World War I, most youths left school in their midteens to help support their families. In the 1920s, however, more and more children were able to complete
secondary school. During the height of the Depression, many teenagers left school. However, by the1950s, most
middle-class teenagers were expected to stay in school, holding only part-time jobs, if they worked at all. With
more leisure time, some young people appeared to devote all their energies to organizing parties and pranks,
joining fraternities and sororities, and generally pursuing entertainment and fun. Some teenagers, most of them
girls, baby-sat in their spare time.
Young parents who moved to the suburbs were less able to turn to members of their extended family for help with
child-care. By the 1950s, baby-sitting had for the first time become a job done not by relatives, but by the young
daughters of friends and neighbors. By the end of the decade, half of all teenage girls were employed as part-time
baby sitters. Businesses seized the opportunity to sell products to the youth market. Advertisements and movies
helped to build an image of what it meant to be a teenager in the 1950s. The girls were shown in bobby socks and
poodle skirts, and the boys wore letter sweaters. These images created a greater sense of conformity in style. The
media's ideal of the clean-cut teen could also be seen on such television shows as Leave It to Beaver and Father
Knows Best. Magazines targeting youth, including Seventeen, Datebook, Teen, and Cool, offered plenty of advice
to teenagers-not only on how to dress, but on how best to behave, especially when it came to dating. Teenage girls
collected items such as silver and linens in anticipation of marriage, which was often just after high school. The
number of teenage brides rose in the 1950s, so that by 1954, close to half of all brides were in their teens,
typically marrying grooms just slightly older.
A Resurgence in Religion
In the 1950s, Americans, who had drifted away from religion in earlier years, flocked back to their churches and
synagogues. The renewed interest in religion was a response in part to the Cold War struggle against "godless
communism." Some looked to religion to find hope in the face of the threat of nuclear war. Evidence of the
newfound commitment to religion was abundant. In 1954, Congress added the words "under God" to the Pledge
of Allegiance, and the next year it required the phrase "In God We Trust" to appear on all American currency.
Like other aspects of American life, religion became more commercial. Those in need could call Dial-a-Prayer,
and new slogans that sounded a lot like advertising-"the family that prays together stays together," for examplebecame commonplace. Evangelists used radio and television to carry their messages to more people than ever
before. By the end of the 1950s, about 95 percent of all Americans said they felt connected to some formal
Page | 22
religious group.
Men's and Women's Roles
Americans in the post-World War II years were keenly aware of the roles that they were expected to playas men
and women. These roles were defined by social and religious traditions that had broad appeal to Americans. Men
were expected to go to school and then find jobs to support wives and children. Theirs was the public sphere, the
world away from home, where they earned money and made important political, economic, and social decisions.
Women were expected to playa supporting role in their husbands' lives. They kept house, cooked meals, and
raised children. Many parents turned to pediatrician Dr. Benjamin Spock for child-care advice. His book The
Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946) had a major impact on child-rearing practices. Most middleclass women settled into the domestic role and took on the demands of raising children and maintaining their
suburban homes. In 1956, Life magazine published "Busy Wife's Achievements." The article profiled a housewife
who had married at the age of 16, had four children, and kept busy with the PTA, Campfire Girls, and charity
causes. She served as "home manager, mother, hostess, and useful civic worker." Her family duties and
community service were typical of many middle-class suburban women.
Challenges to Conformity
Social conformity made it easy to mask the differences among individuals and groups. Not all Americans fit the
model of American middle-class life described above, however.
Women at Work
Many women had enjoyed working outside the home during World War II and were reluctant to give up their
good jobs. Some women, single and married, worked simply to make ends meet. Although the norm was for
women to leave their jobs once they were married, not all women did. In 1950, about 24 percent of all married
American women had jobs. By 1960, the figure had risen to 31 percent. Married women with jobs had first begun
to outnumber unmarried women with jobs near the end of World War II; in the postwar years, the gap grew even
larger. Most of the women who worked outside the home held jobs as secretaries, teachers, nurses, and sales
clerks. Besides the satisfaction of earning their own money, women wanted to be able to buy the items that were
part of "the good life," such as cars and electric appliances.
In 1963, Betty Friedan published a critique of the 1950s ideal of womanhood. In The Feminine Mystique,
Friedan lashed out at the culture that made it difficult for women to choose alternative roles. Millions of women,
Friedan charged, were frustrated with their roles in the 1950s:
"It was unquestioned gospel [in the 1950s] that women could identify with nothing beyond the home-not politics,
not art, not science, not events large or small, war or peace, in the United States or the world, unless it could be
approached through female experience as a wife or mother or translated into domestic detail!"
-Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique
Youthful Rebellions
Young people also challenged the norms of 1950s society. Some young people rejected the values of their parents
and felt misunderstood and alone. A few films, such as Rebel Without a Cause released in 1955, captured these
feelings of alienation. The movie's young star, James Dean, became a teen idol and a film legend. Holden
Caulfield, the main character in J. D. Salinger's 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye is troubled by the "phonies" he
sees at boarding school and in the world around him. Throughout the book, Holden struggles to preserve his own
integrity despite the fierce pressure to conform. Many readers could relate to this experience.
Young people sought a style they could call their own. In 1951, disc jockey Alan Freed began hosting a radio
show in Cleveland, Ohio, playing what was called black rhythm-and-blues music for a largely black audience.
"Moondog Rock 'n' Roll Party "gave important exposure to the music, which grew out of rhythm-and-blues and
came to be called rock-and-roll. Teenagers across the nation quickly became fans of the driving beat and simple
Page | 23
melodies that characterized rock-and-roll. They rushed to buy records of their favorite performers: African
American stars such as Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Fats Domino; and white musicians including Bill Haley
and the Comets, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Buddy Holly. One of the best-known rock-and-roll singers was Elvis
Presley. Presley's performances showcased his flamboyant style and good looks. He attracted hordes of screaming
teenage girls everywhere he went. Presley released many records that became huge hits, including "Don't Be
Cruel," "Hound Dog," and "Heartbreak Hotel." From the United States, rock music spread to Europe and Asia,
becoming popular with listeners and influencing musicians. Many adults disliked the new music, fearing it would
cause a rise in immorality. For some people, opposition to rock-and-roll had to do with race. Rock-and-roll, in its
appeal to both black and white teenagers, and in its black rhythm-and-blues origins, threatened many who were
comfortable with racial segregation in the1950s and who were uncomfortable with the idea of black and white
teenagers attending the same concerts and dancing to the same music. Despite some efforts to ban rock concerts
and keep records out of stores, rock-and-roll's popularity continued to soar.
Members of the "Beat Generation," called beatniks, launched a different kind of challenge. Beatniks, some of
them writers, some artists, some simply participants in the movement, promoted spontaneity, or acting at a
moment's notice without planning. They stressed spirituality and the need for release from the world of money
and property. Beatniks challenged traditional patterns of respectability and shocked other Americans with their
more open sexuality and their use of illegal drugs. Author Jack Kerouac, whom many considered the leader of
the beat generation, gathered with others in coffee houses in San Francisco, California, to share ideas and
experiences. The unconventional Kerouac published his best-selling novel On the Road in 1957. He typed the first
complete draft in less than a month, and on one continuous roll of paper. This was a reflection of his free-flowing,
spontaneous writing method. The novel's "wild form," as Kerouac described it, was meant to reflect an open
approach to life. One of Kerouac's friends, Allen Ginsberg, used the unstructured and chaotic style of the Beat
Movement to write his influential epic poem "Howl," which begins, "I saw the best minds of my generation
destroyed by madness, starving, hysterical..."
Page | 24
Section 8: Politics of the 1950s
--'-"'",
READING FOCUS
• What were Truman's domestic policies, as outlined in his Fair Deal?
• How did Truman win the election of1948?
• What was the Republican approach to government during the Eisenhower presidency?
Setting the Scene
The 1950s were conservative years- politically as well as culturally. The government felt public pressure to
maintain the nation's newly won prosperity. Democrat Harry Truman first struggled with the problems of moving
to a peacetime economy, and then fought for a reform program blocked repeatedly by Congress. Republican
Dwight Eisenhower took a more low-key approach to the presidency. His genial, reassuring manner made him
one of the most popular Presidents in the years following World War II, which explains his ease in winning two
terms.
Truman's Domestic Policies
Harry Truman wanted to follow in Franklin Roosevelt's footsteps, but he often appeared ill-prepared for the
presidency. He seemed to have a scattershot approach to governing, offering a new batch of proposals in every
speech. People wondered where his focus lay.
The Peacetime Economy
Truman's first priority was reconversion- the social and economic transition from wartime to peacetime. Soldiers
wanted to return home, and politicians were flooded with messages that warned, "No boats, no votes." Truman
responded quickly and got most soldiers home by 1946.Lifting the economic controls that had kept wartime
inflation in check proved a more difficult challenge. Most Americans had limited access to consumer goods
during World War II. Now they wanted those goods, and they wanted them right away. In an effort to make the
economy more responsive to consumer preferences, the government eased the controls in July 1946, and prices
soared almost 25 percent. Since wages failed to keep up with prices, many people still could not enjoy the fruits
of their years of sacrifice. In some ways, the economic issues facing the United States at the end of World War II
were similar to those at the end of World War I. Workers demanded wage increases that they had forgone for the
sake of the war effort. In 1946, nearly 4.6 million workers went on strike, more than ever before in the United
States. Strikes hit the automobile, steel, electrical, coal, and railroad industries, and affected nearly everyone in
the country. Although Truman agreed that workers deserved higher wages, he thought that their demands were
inflationary. That is, he feared that such increases would push the prices of goods still higher. In his view,
workers failed to understand that big wage increases might destroy the health of the economy.
In the spring of 1946, a railroad strike caused a major disruption in the economy. In response, Truman asked
Congress for the power to draft the striking workers into the army. He would then be able to order them as
soldiers to stay on the job. During his address to Congress, Truman received a note stating that the strike had
ended "on terms proposed by the President."Truman's White House took other steps to limit the power of labor
unions as well. When John L. Lewis and his United Mine Workers defied a court order against a strike, the
Truman administration asked a judge to serve Lewis with a contempt of court citation. The court fined Lewis
$10,000 and his union $3.5 million.
Congress went even further than Truman: In 1947, it passed the Taft-Hartley Act. This act allowed the President
to declare an 80-day cooling-off period during which strikers had to return to work, if the strikes were in
industries that affected the national interest. Reflecting the widespread anti-Communist feelings gripping the
United States at the time, the measure also required union officials to sign oaths that they were not Communists.
Page | 25
Furious union leaders complained bitterly about the measure, and Truman vetoed it. Congress, however, passed
the act over Truman's veto.
Truman's Fair Deal
Truman had supported Roosevelt's New Deal, and now, playing on the well-known name, he devised a program
he called the Fair Deal. The Fair Deal extended the New Deal's goals. Truman agreed with FDR that government
needed to play an active role in securing economic justice for all American citizens. As the war ended, he
introduced a 21-point program that included legislation designed to promote full employment, a higher minimum
wage, greater unemployment compensation for workers without jobs, housing assistance, and a variety of other
items. Over the next ten weeks, Truman added more proposals to the Fair Deal. By early 1946, he had asked for a
national health insurance program and legislation to control atomic energy. Truman ran into tremendous political
opposition in Congress from a coalition of conservative Democrats and Republicans. Opponents rejected the
majority of the Fair Deal initiatives. One measure that passed was the Employment Act of 1946, which created a
Council of Economic Advisors to advise the President.
As the 1946 midterm elections approached, it seemed to many people that Truman was little more than a bungling
bureaucrat. Truman's support in one poll dropped from 87percent just after he assumed the presidency to 32
percent in November1946. The results of the 1946 elections reflected many people's feelings that Truman was not
an effective leader. Republicans won majorities of both houses of Congress. The 80th Congress battered the
President for the next two years. Under the leadership of the conservative Republican senator Robert A. Taft of
Ohio, commonly known as "Mr. Republican," the Republican Party worked hard to reduce the size and the power
of the federal government, to decrease taxes, and to block Truman's liberal goals. On civil rights initiatives, in
particular, Truman found opposition throughout his presidency.
Truman on Civil Rights
Truman recognized that as President he had to take action on civil rights. In a letter to a friend, he wrote, "I am
not asking for social equality, because no such things exist, but I am asking for equality of opportunity for all
human beings, and, as long as I stay here, I am going to continue that fight."Truman had publicly supported civil
rights for many years. In September 1946, he met with a group of African American leaders to discuss the steps
that needed to be taken to achieve their goals. They asked Truman to support a federal anti-lynching law, abolish
the poll tax as a voting requirement, and establish a permanent board to prevent discriminatory practices in hiring.
Congress refused to address any of these concerns, so in December1946, Truman appointed a biracial Committee
on Civil Rights to look into race relations. This group produced a report demanding action on the concerns listed
above. It also recommended that a permanent civil rights commission be established. With southerners in control
of key congressional committees and threatening a filibuster, Congress took no action. In July 1948, Truman
banned discrimination in the hiring of federal employees. He also ordered an end to segregation and
discrimination in the armed forces. Real change came slowly, however. Only with the onset of the Korean War
in 1950 did the armed forces make significant progress in ending segregation.
The Election of 1948
Truman decided to seek another term as President in 1948. He had no reason to expect victory, however, because
even in his own party, his support was disintegrating. The southern wing of the Democratic Party, protesting a
moderate civil rights plank in the party platform, split off from the main party. These segregationists formed the
States' Rights, or Dixiecrat Party, and nominated J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for President.
Meanwhile, the liberal wing of the Democratic Party deserted Truman to follow Henry Wallace, who headed the
Progressive Party ticket. Wallace had been Franklin Roosevelt's second Vice President, and many Democrats
believed that he was the right person to carry out the measures begun by' Roosevelt. Most recently Wallace had
served as Truman's Secretary of Commerce. Wallace had resigned, however, because he did not support Truman's
Cold War policies.
Page | 26
Running against Republican Thomas E. Dewey, governor of New York, Truman crisscrossed the country by
train. He campaigned not so much against Dewey as against the Republican Congress, which the President
repeatedly mocked as the "do-nothing" 80th Congress. Truman's campaign style was blunt and effective. In offthe-cuff speeches, he challenged all Americans: "If you send another Republican Congress to Washington, you're
a bigger bunch of suckers than I think you are." "Give 'em hell, Harry," the people yelled as Truman got going.
And he did.
On Election Day, although virtually all experts and polls had picked Dewey to win, Truman scored an astounding
upset. Furthermore, Democrats won control of Congress. With this victory, Truman stepped out of FDR's shadow
to claim the presidency in his own right. Truman looked forward to a chance to push further for his legislative
goals. Over the next four years, however, the Fair Deal scored only occasional successes. Longtime Democratic
control over the White House frustrated many Republicans, who were opposed to any legacy of the New Deal.
Debate over presidential term limits had flared up after Roosevelt won his unprecedented third and fourth terms.
Up until that time, the two-term presidency had been upheld by custom-as set by George Washington- rather than
by law. Republicans, together with southern Democrats, moved for the passage of a constitutional amendment
limiting a President to two terms. The amendment won more than enough votes in both houses. Truman was silent
on the matter, and Americans showed little concern for the issue. It was in the absence of public opposition, rather
than with any overwhelming public support, that the Twenty-Second Amendment was adopted in 1951. The
amendment's passage did little to keep politicians from debating the issue. Since then analysts have wondered if
term limitations render a second-term President less effective than one empowered to seek reelection.
The amendment contained specific language that allowed Truman to be reelected. Nonetheless, he decided not to
run again in 1952, as the ongoing war in Korea had taken its toll on his presidency. Instead, the Democrats chose
Adlai Stevenson, governor of Illinois, as their presidential candidate.
Eisenhower and the Republican Approach
Running against Stevenson for the Republicans was Dwight Eisenhower, former commander in chief of the
Allied forces. As a public figure, Eisenhower's approach to politics differed from that of Harry Truman. Whereas
Truman was a scrappy fighter, Ike-as the people affectionately called Dwight Eisenhower-had always been a
talented diplomat. During World War II, Eisenhower forged agreements among Allied military commanders. His
easygoing charm gave Americans a sense of security. By 1952, Americans across the land were chanting, "I like
Ike." The Republicans devised a "K1 C2" formula for victory, which focused on three problems: Korea,
communism, and corruption. Eisenhower promised to end the Korean War, and the Republican Party guaranteed a
tough approach to the Communist challenge. Eisenhower's vice-presidential running mate, Californian Richard
M. Nixon, hammered on the topic of corruption in government.
The Checkers Speech
In spite of his overwhelming popularity, Eisenhower's candidacy hit a snag in September 1952. Newspapers
accused Richard Nixon of having a special fund, set up by rich Republican supporters. "Secret Nixon Fund!"and
"Secret Rich Man's Trust Fund Keeps Nixon in Style Beyond His Salary, "screamed typical headlines. In fact,
Nixon had done nothing wrong, but the accusation that he had received illegal gifts from political friends was
hard to shake. Soon, cries arose for Eisenhower to dump Nixon from the ticket. Eisenhower decided to allow
Nixon to save himself, if he could. In response to the allegation, Nixon delivered a televised speech, emotionally
denying wrongful use of campaign funds. He also gave a detailed account of his personal finances. In response to
the charge that he was living above his means, he described his wife, Pat, as wearing a "respectable Republican
cloth coat."The emotional climax of the speech came when Nixon admitted that he had, in fact, received one gift
from a political supporter:
Page | 27
"It was a little cocker spaniel dog...Black and white spotted. An dour little girl-Tricia, the 6-year-old-named it
Checkers. And you know the kids love that dog and I just want to say this right now, that regardless of what they
say about it, we're going to keep it."-Richard Nixon, September 23, 1952
At the end of his speech, Nixon requested that the American people contact the Eisenhower campaign to register
their opinions as to whether or not he should stay on the Republican ticket. People from all across the nation
called, wired, and wrote to Eisenhower, demanding that Nixon continue as his running mate. Nixon had turned a
political disaster into a public relations bonanza. Support for Eisenhower continued to grow through the fall. Ike
got 55 percent of the popular vote and swept into office with a Republican Congress.
In 1956, Eisenhower once again faced Stevenson and easily won reelection. This time he garnered an even greater
margin of victory, with almost 58 percent of the vote. The Democrats, however, having regained control of
Congress in midterm elections, continued to lead both houses after the 1956 election.
Modern Republicanism
In domestic matters, Eisenhower was determined to slow the growth of the federal government. He also wanted to
limit the President's power and increase the authority of Congress and the courts. Eisenhower was not, however,
interested in completely reversing the New Deal. Ike's priorities included cutting spending, reducing taxes, and
balancing the budget. He called this approach to government "dynamic conservatism" or Modern
Republicanism. He intended to be "conservative when it comes to money, liberal when it comes to human
beings."In the tradition of past Republican Presidents such as Coolidge and Hoover, Eisenhower favored big
business. His Cabinet was composed mostly of successful businessmen, plus one union leader. Critics charged
that the Eisenhower Cabinet consisted of "eight millionaires and a plumber."Modern Republicanism sought to
encourage and support corporate America. Eisenhower's administration transferred control of about $40 billion
worth of offshore oil lands from the federal government to the states so that the states could lease oil rights to
corporations. It worked to end government competition with big business. Ike's attempt to balance the budget
backfired. His cuts in government spending caused the economy to slump. When that happened, tax revenues
dropped, and the deficit grew larger instead of smaller. Economic growth, which had averaged 4.3 percent
between1947 and 1952, fell to 2.5 percent between1953 and 1960. The country suffered three economic
recessions during Eisenhower's presidency, from 1953 to 1954, from 1957 to1958, and again from 1960 to 1961.
Despite America's economic troubles, Eisenhower helped the country maintain a mood of stability. He also
underscored the basic commitment the government had made during the New Deal to ensure the economic
security of all Americans. For example, in 1954 and 1956, Social Security was extended to make eligible 10
million additional workers. In1955, the minimum wage was raised from 75 cents to $1 an hour.
Meeting the Technology Challenge
When the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, as described in the previous chapter, many Americans grew
concerned that the United States was losing its competitive edge. Others feared a nuclear attack would soon
follow. In 1958, the United States government responded by creating the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), as an independent agency for space exploration. The same year, Congress passed and
President Eisenhower signed into law the National Defense Education Act. The measure was designed to
improve science and mathematics instruction in the schools so that the United States could meet the scientific and
technical challenge from the Soviet Union. The act provided millions of dollars in low-cost loans to college
students and significant reductions in repayments if they ultimately became teachers. The federal government also
granted millions to state schools for building science and foreign language facilities.
Page | 28
Section 9: The Cold War in the early-1960s
READING FOCUS
• What were the goals of the Bay of Pigs invasion, and what was the outcome?
• What events led to the Berlin crisis and to the Cuban Missile Crisis?
• What were the goals of the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps?
• Which Cold War conflicts did President Johnson become involved in?
NOTE: This section refers to President John Kennedy and President Lyndon Johnson. In this
section we will only discuss the Cold War events and foreign policy that were dealt with during their
presidencies. We will discuss their elections and domestic policies in later sections.
Setting the Scene
Although they would have liked to dedicate more of America's resources to improving conditions at home, both
Kennedy and Johnson found themselves in the front lines of the Cold War. It was a dangerous and expensive
battle, but, as Kennedy argued, it was one worth fighting. As President at the height of the Cold War between the
Soviet Union and the United States, Kennedy spoke boldly. In the crises he faced as President, though, Kennedy
found that he had to act more cautiously to prevent a local conflict from sparking a global war.
The Bay of Pigs Invasion
Kennedy's first foreign crisis arose in Cuba, an island about 90 miles off the Florida coast. The United States had
been concerned about Cuba ever since1959, when Fidel Castro overthrew the U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio
Batista. Some Cubans had supported Castro because he promised to improve the lives of poor people. Castro
claimed that the poor were being exploited by wealthy Cubans and by United States companies operating in Cuba.
Once in power, the Castro government seized large, privately owned plantations and property owned by foreign
corporations, including some U.S. businesses. The United States broke diplomatic relations with Cuba and
refused to accept Castro as the country's legitimate leader. When Castro developed ties to the Soviet Union,
American officials began to fear that Cuba could become a model for revolutionary upheaval throughout Latin
America.
A Plan to Overthrow Castro
After Kennedy became President, he was informed about a plan that President Eisenhower had approved in 1960.
Under this plan, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was training a group of Cubans to invade Cuba and
overthrow Castro. The training took place in Guatemala, a nearby Central American country. Kennedy and his
advisors expected the Cuban people to help the invaders defeat Castro. Resistance to the plan soon surfaced,
however. When Democratic Senator J. William Fulbright, head of the Foreign Relations Committee, learned of
the scheme, he called it an "endless can of worms." He warned the President:
"To give this activity even covert [secret] support is of a piece with the hypocrisy and cynicism for which the United
States is constantly denouncing [condemning] the Soviet Union in the United Nations and elsewhere. This point
will not be lost on the rest of the world, nor on our own consciences."
-Senator J. William Fulbright, memorandum to Kennedy, March 29, 1961
Despite such reservations and those of some military leaders, Kennedy accepted the advice of the CIA and agreed
to push ahead with the invasion plan.
Page | 29
A Military Catastrophe
The Bay of Pigs invasion took place on April 17, 1961. It was a total disaster. An airstrike failed to destroy
Cuba's air force, and Cuban troops were more than a match for the 1,500 U.S.-backed invaders. When Kennedy's
advisors urged him to use American planes to provide air cover for the attackers, he refused. Rather than continue
a hopeless effort, he chose simply to accept defeat. The United States lost a great deal of prestige in the disastrous
attack. To begin with, the invasion was clumsy and incompetent. Furthermore, America's support of an effort to
overthrow another nation's government was exposed to the world. The United States faced anger from other
countries in Latin America for violating agreements not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere. European leaders,
who had high hopes for the new President, were concerned about the kind of leadership he would provide.
The Berlin Crisis
Upset by the failure at the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy was now even more determined to prove his toughness against
communism. Later in 1961, he had another opportunity when a new crisis arose over a familiar issue: Berlin.
Rekindled Tensions Over Germany
After the Soviet attempt to cut off access to Berlin in 1948 had failed as a result of President Truman's successful
Berlin airlift, they were eager to find a new way to stop Eastern European citizens from defecting to the West.
Now the Soviets made another effort to resolve problems in Berlin on their own terms. They demanded a peace
treaty that would make the division of the city permanent. Their goal was to cut off the large flow of East
Germans escaping into West Germany, particularly through Berlin. Kennedy feared that the Soviet effort in
Germany was part of a larger plan to take over the rest of Europe. Adding to his fears, his first meeting with
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, in Vienna, Austria, in June 1961, went poorly. When Khrushchev made a
public ultimatum regarding Germany, Kennedy felt bullied by the Soviet leader.
Kennedy Takes Action
Upon returning home, Kennedy decided to show the Soviets that the United States would not be intimidated. He
asked Congress for a huge increase of more than $3 billion for defense. He doubled the number of young men
being drafted into the armed services and called up reserve forces for active duty. At the same time, he sought
more than $200 million for a program to build fallout shelters across the country. He argued that the United
States had to be prepared if the crisis led to nuclear war. Kennedy appeared on television to tell the American
people that West Berlin was "the great testing place of Western courage and will, a focal point where our solemn
commitments…and Soviet ambitions now meet in basic confrontation." The United States, he said, would not be
pushed around: "We do not want to fight-but we have fought before."
In August 1961, the Soviets responded by building a wall to separate Communist and non-Communist Berlin. The
Berlin Wall became a somber symbol of the Cold War and a physical representation of the Iron Curtain. Still, by
stopping the flow of East Germans to the West, the Soviet Union had found a way to avoid a showdown over East
Berlin. Although the immediate crisis was over, the tensions of the Cold War continued. Speaking in Frankfurt,
West Germany, in June 1963, Kennedy declared that the United States "will risk its cities to defend yours because
we need your freedom to protect ours." Two days later, the President addressed a cheering crowd near the Berlin
Wall. To symbolize his commitment to the city, he concluded his speech with the rousing words, Ich bin ein
Berliner, or, "I am a Berliner."
The Cuban Missile Crisis
Kennedy also had a chance to restore American prestige in another crisis with Cuba. The Soviet Union, disturbed
by the attempted Bay of Pigs invasion, had pledged to support Castro's government. On October 16, 1962,
photographs taken from an American spy plane revealed that the Soviets were building missile bases on Cuban
soil-only about 90 miles from the island of Key West, Florida. What followed was the Cuban Missile Crisis, a
terrifying standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union that brought the superpowers to the brink of
nuclear war.
Page | 30
Kennedy's Options
The Soviet missiles in Cuba did not radically change the military balance between the United States and the
Soviet Union. Yet installing missiles so close to the United States seemed to be an effort by the Soviets to
intimidate the Americans. In addition, the Soviets intended their missiles in Cuba to counter American missiles
close to the USSR in Turkey. Kennedy was convinced that the missiles presented a direct challenge to which he
must respond -but how?
The President quickly assembled his top advisors in a series of secret meetings. They outlined four possible
responses:
1. Engage in further negotiations with Khrushchev. This option, although peaceful, would give the Soviets more
time to finish building the missile bases. It also risked making Kennedy look hesitant and weak in the face of the
bold Soviet move.
2. Invade Cuba. This would eliminate the missile threat and achieve the additional goal of ousting Fidel Castro. A
Cuban invasion had failed before, though, and this plan risked all-out nuclear war with the Soviets.
3. Blockade Cuba. This action would prevent Soviet ships from malting further missile deliveries. It would force
Khrushchev either to back off or to take aggressive action against U.S. warships. However, no one knew how the
Soviet leader might react to this step.
4. Bomb the missile sites. A series of airstrikes could quickly knock out the missiles. Yet, would the Soviets
launch a counter strike, and where?
Attorney General Robert Kennedy argued against the airstrike option. It seemed, he said, too much like the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that had launched the United States into World War II. At one point former
Secretary of State Dean Acheson joined the discussions and declared that the United States had to knock out the
Soviet missiles. He was asked what would happen next. He replied that the USSR would probably strike US bases
in Turkey leading to a broader war. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara argued for a blockade to hold the
Soviets at bay until negotiation can be reached. Pentagon (military) officials were in favor an invasion of Cuba.
In the end, one man would decide the course of action to take, and the stakes could not have been higher.
Kennedy Decides
President Kennedy ordered United States forces on full alert. U.S. bombers were armed with nuclear missiles. The
navy was ready to move, and army and marine units prepared to invade Cuba. Kennedy listened to the different
views of his advisors, grilling them with questions. Then, in solitude, he weighed the options, facing one of the
most dangerous and agonizing decisions any President has had to make.
On Monday, October 22,-Kennedy went on television and radio to respond to the press reports that had begun to
circulate about Cuba. "[U]nmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is
now in preparation on that imprisoned island," he said. The President then announced his decision: He had
authorized a naval "quarantine" around Cuba. He was careful not to call the action a "blockade" because a
blockade is an act of war. He demanded that Khrushchev "halt and eliminate this clandestine, reckless and
provocative threat…"America did not desire confrontation, Kennedy said, but neither would it shrink from
aggression.
The World Waits
The two most powerful nations in the world stood teetering on the brink of disaster. The immediate public
reaction was a mixture of anger and fear. The naval quarantine went into effect on Wednesday, October 24. On
October 25, a Soviet ship reached the quarantine line and was stopped by the navy. Because it was carrying only
oil, it was allowed to proceed. Meanwhile, a dozen more Soviet cargo ships were steaming toward the blockade.
Then, to everyone's great relief, the Soviet ships suddenly reversed direction. Khrushchev had called them back.
Page | 31
Disaster Avoided
The crisis was not yet over, however. In Cuba, construction on the existing missile sites continued. On October
26, Khrushchev sent Kennedy along letter in which he pledged to remove the missiles if Kennedy promised that
the United States would end the quarantine and stay out of Cuba. A second letter delivered the next day demanded
that the United States remove its missiles from Turkey in exchange for the withdrawal of Soviet missiles in Cuba.
Kennedy publicly accepted the terms of the first note. He responded to the second note through secret
negotiations and eventually met the demand. With that, the crisis ended. As Secretary of State Dean Rusk
observed to President Kennedy, "We have won a considerable victory. You and I are still alive."
The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world closer than ever before to nuclear war. Such a war would have caused
unimaginable death and destruction-far more, for example, than the atomic bombings of Japan in 1945, in part
because more-powerful hydrogen bombs had replaced those early atomic weapons. Kennedy emerged from the
confrontation as a hero. He had stood up to the Soviets and shown that the United States would not be pushed
around. His reputation, and that of the Democratic Party, improved just in time for the midterm congressional
elections that were only weeks away.
The Aftereffects
The Cuban Missile Crisis led to a number of efforts to reduce the risk of nuclear war. Once the confrontation was
over, Kennedy and Khrushchev established a "hot line" between their two nations to allow the Soviet and
American leaders to communicate quickly in the event of a future crisis. In addition, in the summer of 1963 the
two countries (along with Great Britain) signed the first nuclear treaty since the development of the atomic bomb.
This agreement, the Limited Test Ban Treaty, banned nuclear testing above the ground. By doing so, it sought to
eliminate the radioactive fallout that threatened to contaminate human, animal, and plant life. The treaty still
permitted underground nuclear testing, and the United States and the Soviet Union continued to build bigger and
bigger bombs. Nonetheless, as Kennedy noted, the treaty marked "an important first step toward peace, a step
toward reason, a step away from war."
The Alliance for Progress
The Soviet Union and the United States competed not only by building up their military forces, but also by
seeking allies in the developing countries of Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Many of these countries were
terribly poor. Communist revolutionary movements in some of these countries were gaining support by promising
people a better future. To counter these revolutionary movements, Kennedy tried to promote "peaceful
revolution"-that is, to help build stable governments that met the needs of their citizens and also were allied with
the democratic countries of the West. Two months after taking office, Kennedy called on all the people of the
Western Hemisphere to join in a new Alliance for Progress, or Alianza para Progreso. The Alliance would be a
vast cooperative effort to satisfy the basic needs of people in North, Central, and South America for homes, work,
land, health, and schools. The task was a huge undertaking. The administration pledged $20 billion over ten years
to promote economic development and social reform and to prevent revolution. All citizens in the Western
Hemisphere, Kennedy declared, had "a right to social justice," and that included "land for the landless, and
education for those who are denied education."Soon, however, Latin Americans began to question the benefits of
the Alliance. Some viewed it simply as a tool of the United States to stop the spread of communism. Because of
such doubts, the Alliance for Progress never lived up to Kennedy's expectations.
The Peace Corps
Kennedy's hope for a world in which nations worked together peacefully to solve problems was also reflected in
his establishment of the Peace Corps in1961. This program sent college-age volunteers abroad as educators,
health workers, and technicians to help developing nations around the world.
Page | 32
Johnson's Foreign Policy
In 1963, Lyndon Johnson assumed the presidency upon Kennedy's death. His foreign policy, like Kennedy's,
focused on containing communism around the world. The United States and its allies continued to battle
Communist expansion in the 1960s.
The Dominican Republic
In 1965, Johnson received word that the military-backed government in the Dominican Republic, a Caribbean
nation close to Cuba, had been attacked by rebels. Johnson feared that the disruption might endanger American
citizens living there. Arguing (wrongly, it turned out) that Communist elements were causing the disruption,
Johnson sent 22,000 marines to the Dominican Republic. Their presence tipped the balance away from the rebels.
Within a few months a provisional government backed by the United States was put in place. Elections were held
the following year.
Vietnam
Johnson also became deeply involved in the ongoing conflict in Southeast Asia between Communist North
Vietnam and non-Communist South Vietnam. Like Kennedy, Johnson was determined to prevent the spread of
communism there. By 1963, about 16,000American military advisors were in South Vietnam. The United States
was also contributing economic aid to the South Vietnamese government. In his 1964 campaign for President,
Johnson opposed more direct United States involvement in the war. Yet, before long he faced the prospect of a
Communist takeover of South Vietnam, which he could not tolerate. During 1965, American involvement in the
conflict deepened as more and more troops and money were sent to prop up the South Vietnamese government.
Page | 33