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U.S. History and Geography Vocabulary #25
Reviewing Your Middle School History
Definitions
1. hunter-gatherers / Agricultural Revolution – Scientists believe the first
modern humans appeared about 200,000 years ago. They lived during
the Paleolithic era or Stone Age and most were hunter-gatherers,
meaning they hunted animals and gathered grains, nuts, and berries for
food. They developed the first stone tools, learned to use fire, developed
language, and created art. Starting in Southwest Asia (Mesopotamia)
about 5,000 years ago, people learned how to grow food crops by
planting seeds and domesticating wild animals. This was called the
Agricultural Revolution or Neolithic era (New Stone Age).
Illustration of Stone Age (Paleolithic) hunter-gatherers.
Men in the background with game (animals) they have hunted.
Women in the foreground gathering wild grains and nuts.
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2. river civilizations / Mesopotamia – One of the major themes of 6th
Grade Social Studies is river civilizations. Most of the world’s ancient
civilizations sprang up near major rivers because the rivers provided
water for drinking/cooking, irrigation for farming, and transportation.
Examples of river civilizations include Mesopotamia (meaning Land
between the Rivers) (Tigris-Euphrates River), China (Yellow River),
and Egypt (Nile River). Three of the oldest civilizations developed at
the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea; Sumer, Egypt, and Kush.
Sumer appeared circa 4000 BC (Before Christ) (6000 years ago). Circa
3100 BC the kingdom of Egypt appeared, ruled by a pharaoh. Kush
arose circa 2000 BC in the area south of Egypt; today called the Sudan.
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3. monotheism / Judaism – Monotheism is the belief in one God.
Historians believe that Judaism was the first monotheistic religion and
it appeared circa 2000 BC in Canaan (Israel). The Jews, or Hebrews,
believed that if they obeyed God, followed the Ten Commandments, and
valued life, self-control, and justice, God would take care of and protect
them. Due in part to their belief in monotheism, Jews have been
persecuted throughout history as outsiders. Most of the world’s ancient
religions were polytheistic (belief in many gods). Many Jewish values
such as a sense of justice (right v. wrong), adhering to or following the
law, and emphasizing education, have greatly influenced Western
Civilization. People 4000 years ago influence your life!
The Ten Commandments from the Jewish Torah or Old Testament of the
Christian Bible. The Ten Commandments form the basis of justice and law
for Western Civilization or the Western World. The U.S. is part of this
tradition and greatly influenced by these values.
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4. democracy / city-states – Perhaps the greatest and most influential
ancient civilization was the Greek city-states, which appeared circa 600
BC. They influenced Western Civilization and culture, and continue to
do so. Athens was one of the most significant city-states and it was there
that democracy, a type of government in which the citizens of a country
vote to make laws and decisions, was created circa 500 BC. City-states
were small, independent cities that were also states/countries/nations.
During its Golden Age, the Greeks created some of the world’s greatest
literature, philosophy, history, art, architecture, mathematics, and
science. Greek city-states did not get along and fought. By 350 BC,
Greece was conquered by Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He
preserved Greek culture by spreading it throughout his empire.
Map of Ancient Greece and its city-states
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5. Hinduism / Buddhism – India is part of the continent of Asia, but is
called a sub-continent because it is so large and isolated due to
mountains, deserts, and oceans. India’s oldest civilization was the
Harappan which developed along the Indus River. Circa 1200 BC, they
were replaced by a people who invaded from the north called Aryans.
They brought their language, Sanskrit, and their religion, Brahmanism,
to India. Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism, a polytheistic religion
that believes in dividing society into strictly separated classes called
castes. Hindus believe in reincarnation, the belief you can be reborn
into another life form. Another major creation of India was Buddhism,
a religion created by Siddhartha Buddha in the 500s BC that sought
enlightenment, or wisdom, and nirvana, a perfect state of peace.
Diagram of caste system (above); statue of Buddha and quote (below)
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6. China / dynasty – One of the world’s great ancient cultures and
civilizations developed in China. China developed as a river civilization
on the Huang He, or Yellow River, circa 1500 BC (3,500 years ago). A
dynasty or dynasties are a series of rulers from the same family line, led
by an emperor. One of China’s first dynasties, the Shang Dynasty (1600
BC–1046 BC), created China’s first writing system. The Qin Dynasty,
created by emperor Shi Huangdi circa 221-206 BC, unified China and
built the Great Wall across northern China. The Great Wall was
created to protect China from invaders (Mongols, Huns). Under the
Han Dynasty, circa 206 BC-220AD, the Silk Road and Buddhism
thrived. The Han continued building the Great Wall to protect China.
Great Wall of China
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7. Confucianism / inventions – By the 500s BC, China had fallen into chaos
and social turmoil. A man named Confucius (551–478 BC) created a
belief system that calls for people to behave morally, be loyal, and fulfill
their proper roles in society in order to have a peaceful society. In
Confucianism, human beings are believed to be teachable, improvable,
and perfectible (able to become perfect) through personal and
communal (group) effort. A main idea of Confucianism is cultivation of
virtue (goodness) and development of moral perfection (knowing right
v. wrong). Inventions: the Four Great Inventions of ancient China were
papermaking, the compass, gunpowder, and printing (both woodblock
and movable type). Paper money was also a Chinese invention.
Confucius (above); Chinese coins (below)
Spade money (left); Round coin (center); the world’s first paper money (right)
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8. Roman Republic / Roman Empire – The Roman Republic and Empire
greatly influenced Western Civilization. The city of Rome was founded
in the 700s BC and the Roman Republic was created in 509 BC. The
Republic created a written constitution (plan of government), system of
laws, and a 3 part government with executive, legislative, and judicial
branches. Romans developed a powerful army of citizen-soldiers that
conquered surrounding regions. Social and political disorder weakened
the Republic, until in 27 BC Augustus Caesar created an empire. Rome
was noted for its roads, money system, and army. Roman law,
architecture, literature, science, and Latin are influential today. Due to
barbarian (outsiders) invasions, Rome eventually collapsed in 476 AD.
Map of the Roman Empire (circa 50 BC – 476 AD)
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9. Christianity / Byzantine Empire – Even after the fall of Rome in 476 AD
(Anno Domini) to barbarians (uncivilized people), Christianity
continued to grow becoming a major world religion. Christianity is
monotheistic (one god) and teaches that Jesus Christ was the son of God
come to save humanity from sin or evil. The Bible is the book that
Christians study. When the western Roman Empire collapsed, the
heart of Roman civilization shifted east to the Byzantine Empire
(eastern Roman Empire) with its capital at Constantinople. The
Byzantines’ helped preserve Roman learning and ideas from being lost
forever, and added their own uniqueness. Lasting until 1453 AD, the
Byzantines were overthrown by Islamic/Muslim invaders.
Jesus Christ was executed on a cross, a common method of execution in the
Roman Empire. The cross is the symbol of Christianity today. (above)
A map of the Byzantine Empire (above) – the highlighted areas around the
Mediterranean Sea represent the maximum extent (largest) of the empire.
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10. Islam / Muslim – Circa 600 AD (622 AD), a new religion appeared on
the Arabian Peninsula. Islam was that religion and Muslims were its
new faithful (believers in Islam). Islam is based on the teachings of
Muhammad who is considered by Muslims to be the prophet of God /
Allah. Islam is a monotheistic religion and Muslims believe in
promoting justice, praying multiple times daily, helping the poor (alms
giving), and obeying Allah’s commands as found in their religious text
called the Qur’an (Koran). After Muhammad’s death in 632 AD, Islam
spread rapidly throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and even
parts of Europe. Three Muslim empires during the Middle Ages
included the Safavid Persian, Mughal Indian, and Ottoman Turkish.
Muslim scholars preserved ancient Greek writings lost to the West.
A page from the Qur’an, the Muslim holy book (above).
The Islamic Empire circa 750 AD (below).
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11. Mali / Timbuktu – Three great empires arose over time in West Africa
and these civilizations were based along the Niger River. These empires
were Ghana, Mali, and the Songhai. Fertile farmland, salt, gold, and
slaves were valuable resources found in this region. The empire of
Ghana gained control over West Africa by using trade during the 800s
AD. Later, the empire of Mali replaced Ghana and during the 1300s
Mali became a center for learning, the Islamic religion, and Arabic
language. Mali’s capital was Timbuktu. By the late 1400s, a third great
empire, the Songhai, arose. Their prosperity (wealth and success)
depended on control of trade routes that crossed the dangerous Sahara
Desert and connected their empire to North Africa and the Middle East.
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12. Middle Ages / feudal Europe – The Middle Ages (medieval times) was a
period of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century,
after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. It is part of a
three-period division of history: Classic, Medieval, and Modern. The
terms "Middle Ages" or “Dark Ages” reflect the view that this period
was a backward step for civilization. Feudalism was a set of political
and military customs in medieval Europe between the ninth and
fifteenth centuries; a system for organizing society around relationships
based on the use of land in exchange for service or labor. Christianity
flourished and the Crusades were started to recapture the Holy Land
from Muslim control. Codes of chivalry and courtly love set rules for
proper behavior.
Below is a timeline showing the Middle Ages:
Leonardo Bruni was a Renaissance historian who helped develop the concept
of the Middle Ages and influenced our understanding of the medieval period.
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13. bushido / samurai / feudalism – Feudalism was a system of obligations
that bound lords and their subjects in Japan and Europe during much
of the Middle Ages (9th-15th Centuries). In theory, the king owned all or
most of the land and gave it to his leading nobles in return for their
loyalty and military service. The nobles in turn held land that peasants,
including serfs, were allowed to farm in return for the peasants' labor
and a portion of their produce (rent). Under feudalism, people were
born into a particular class. Feudalism included daimyo/lords giving
land to samurai/knights who in turn protected the landowners. In
Japan, the samurai warriors lived by a strict code of honor known as
bushido – the way of the warrior. Japan’s civilization has been shaped
by two factors; it is an archipelago and it is close to China and Korea.
An illustration showing samurai warriors and the philosophy of bushido.
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14. Renaissance / Scientific Revolution – After the fall of the Roman
Empire in 476 AD, western Europe found itself in decline. The
Medieval period, or Middle Ages, is often referred to as the “Dark
Ages.” However, in the late 1300s, a re-birth or Renaissance took place
starting in Italy. An emphasis on human value and achievement called
humanism began to take hold in Europe. The rediscovery of Greek and
Roman writings helped fuel this change in thinking. Humanism and
other Renaissance ideas also helped create the Scientific Revolution in
the 1500-1600s. Instead of solely relying on religion for explanations
about the natural world, people used observation, experimentation, and
reason to form theories, or explanations of why things happen.
Scientific method involves a step-by-step method for doing research.
Growth of Renaissance (above); Scientific method (below)
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15. Ages of Exploration, Reason, and Enlightenment – As the Renaissance
swept through Europe, a new interest in discovery took hold of
Europeans in the 1400s. New inventions and improvements in
navigation, maps, and shipbuilding helped Europeans explore the
world. Europeans’ view of the world changed as an exchange of
culture, religion, languages, plants, and animals took place (Columbian
Exchange). In the 1600s Europeans built on the ideas of the Renaissance
during what is called the Age of Reason. Many people gradually shifted
their focus from life after death (religion), to concentrating on human
achievement while alive (humanism). During the 1700s, the Age of
Enlightenment (Wisdom) went even further, focusing on human reason.
These ideas influenced the creation of democratic and republican style
governments, and the belief that all people had certain natural rights.
Map of the Columbian Exchange (above); This exchange was part of the
European Age of Exploration