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北京大学工学院
PKU College of Engineering
Globex
China’s Economy:
Growth and Global Connections
July 2015
Education
Susan Mays, Ph.D., contact [email protected]
Globex Faculty Fellow, Peking University; Faculty, The University of Texas at Austin
Outline of today’s discussion
 Education Sector Size and Reform in China
 Financing of the System
 Exams: Hardest-Working Students on Earth?...China’s Exam-Oriented System
 Quality of Education for a 21st Century Workforce and Globalization
2
I
Education Reform and Growth
1949-2014: Expansion in Education & Attainment, New Policies
 Since 1949, increase in adult literacy from overall 20% to now 99% of younger adults by
massive expansion of enrollment and adult literacy programs
 Also, changes in educational philosophy, “modern” education, and funding
 Reforms are in financing, management hierarchy, curriculum & teaching, and other areas
4
CONFIDENTIAL
Rounds of reform increase access, focus, and quality

From 1978: Reversing CR policies; education reforms part of broader reforms

Before 1980s, public and school finance characterized by a centralized system

Since 1985, reforms have oscillated between de-centralization and re-centralization

1985 Reforms:





Decentralization of finances and management
Diversification in the mobilization of educational resources
Increasing vocational and technical education
Increasing the number and quality of teachers
1986 Law of Compulsory Education [9 years]:
 Article 10: “The State shall not charge tuition for students receiving compulsory
education. The State shall establish a system of grants-in-aid to support the school
attendance of poor students.”
5
CONFIDENTIAL
The most recent reforms focus on technical and S&T education
 1993 “Program for Chinas Educational Reform and Development”:
Increase focus on human resource development
Encouraged establishment of community-sponsored schools
Allow groups/individuals to operate schools, within context of laws and regulations
 2006 The Real, Free “Compulsory Education” of 9 years across China
Greatly decreased regional disparity
Yet, tuition and relationships affect school options, even in compulsory middle
school
 2014: New Policies to Enhance Technical and Vocational Education (high and lower
levels)
6
CONFIDENTIAL
Growth of secondary enrollment to over 81% by 2011 and
gender
gap closing
rence
High schools: public, private, vocational, adult continue edu, technology schools, etc.
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3
Gross
.2
Male
.1
Female
1970
1974
1972
1978
1976
1982
1980
1986
1984
1990
1988
1994
1992
1998
1996
2002
2000
Fig. 2 Secondar y Enrollment Rate
Big increase in enrollment with “national enrollment expansion policy” in 1998
Sources: China Statistical Yearbook
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Growth of post-secondary enrollment, with quality concerns
Enrollment in Postsecondary Institutions (1,000s)
8
II
Who is Paying for It? The Financing of the System
Financing the system…

Different Types of Schools Have Different Funding Structures

The “Great Leap Forward” in Higher Education in 1998; Tuition; Types of $$ Aid

Financial Inequity in Compulsory Level

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III The Exam-Oriented System
Financing of Migrants’ Education, Emphasize on Vocational Education
Types of Schools and Funding
Funding
Types of Schools
“People-run”
Government
Government
Traditional
government schools
Private
People-run government assisted
schools
People-run school affiliated with
government schools
People-run school owned by
government
People (community)
Private
(individual/group)
Government-run
people assisted
school
Stand-alone people-run schools
Rural people-run schools
Government-run
privately assisted
school
Traditional
private schools

School choices: fluctuating options

Demand for increased school choices:
•
•
•
1949 – 1978: no private schools
1980s: passive tolerance of private schools
1990s: state sanctioned private schools,
more strict licensing
2000s: more openness for private schools
•
•
•
•
More tolerant political environment
Increasing family income
Large disparities in quality between schools
One-child policy in urban areas
•
Educational Funding: Size and Sources
Percent of GDP
14%
on Education
18.5%
61%
6.5%
1978
Funding Sources from the 2000s
Government
Businesses and individuals
Tuition from students
Other
Different
funding sources
can cause
affordability
and equity issues
Global average: 4.9%
Developed: 5.1%
Under-developed: 4.1%
China: recently ~ 4%
Sources: China Statistical Yearbook, China Educational Finance Statistical Yearbook, Yao Zhang, Minds Abroad calculation.
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2012
1998 “Great Leap Forward” in higher education…and tuition
Growth in university student population is based on:
• Cost-sharing between the government and students/families
• High demand resulting in more private colleges
Limited financial aid and loan sources now lead to affordability and equity issues
2012-2013
Urban household income/yr
~Y30,000
Rural household income/yr
~Y9,000
Estimate of (college tuition + dorm)/yr
~Y5,000
College Exp./Annual Household Income
Urban 17%
Rural 56%
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Financial inequity at the compulsory level, years 1-9
Ex: Urban vs Rural Per-student Spending Gap
Total spending
Urban
RMB1062
Rural
RMB576
Ratio
Urban is 1.84x Rural
Labor migration:
•
Children left behind at home with aged, illiterate grandparents
•
School-age children live with parents in cities, but lack adequate schools
•
2008 policy for central gov funding to subsidize migrant kids in public city schools, status?
“Inequity is the largest problem facing Chinese education. We should
provide more opportunities for especially the disadvantaged children to
iliminate further inequality. ”
- Premier Wen Jiabao (2002-2012)
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Initial funds for migrant education emphasized vocational training
Funding VT schools can improve:
• Equity Issues
• Social Cohesion and Stability
• Economic Value (add skilled labor)
Three Types of VT Schools:
• Upper secondary vocational schools:
- Funded by local tax revenue and run
by education bureaucracies
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•
Skilled-workers schools:
- Funded by national tax revenue and
run by the Ministry of Labor and its
local affiliates
•
Secondary (specialized) teacher-trng
schools:
- Most joint funded by local
governments, business & other
stakeholders, run by edu
bureaucracies
III The Exam-Oriented System
From Confucius to 2014: honoring teachers and taking exams
 Confucius ~500BC, Zhou Dynasty, The Analects of Confucius:
“三人行，必有我师” (If 3 walk together, there is always someone to learn from, sān rén
xíng , bì yǒu wǒ shī)
 Confucianism Ideologies and Conventions:
“一日为师，终身为父” (Be my teacher for a day, be my teacher (father) for a lifetime, yī
rì wéi shī , zhōng shēn wéi fù)
 605-1905 AD: The Imperial Examination: select civil servants, golden route for up mobility
 1368-1644 AD: Ming Dynasty, the 8-Part Essay, 八股文:
“万般皆下品，唯有读书高” (To be a scholar is to be the top of society)
 1978: Reestablishment of “高考”(College Entrance Exam), representing the formalization
of education and teaching
 Today: Exam-Oriented School System and Exam-Dominated Society:
•Entrance Exams: primary > secondary > college > grad school
•Proficiency/Graduate Tests: TOIEC, IELTS, TOEFL, GRE, LSAT, etc.
Professional Certificate: Civil servant test, teaching certificate, nurse license, etc.
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Curriculum reforms by MOE in 2005 sought to increase and
emphasize comprehensive qualifications over test scores
Based on 2002’s Notice about Implementation of Basic Education Evaluation and
Testing System Reform
Experimental districts in 2004: 17 pilot districts in China
Junior High School Achievement Test
• The final test for compulsory education
• Qualification for graduation
• One of the criteria for senior high admission
Senior High School Admission Test
Test
Reform
Curriculum
Reform
Comprehensive
Evaluation
Goals of the Reform
• Emphasis: comprehensive evaluation and student-centered teaching
•Reduce the number of tested subjects
• Focus on ability to analyze and apply knowledge
• Diversify the test methods and define test procedures
• Standardize the grading and pass-fail requirements
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Admission
Reform
IV
Edu Quality: Creating a 21stc Workforce for Globalization
Improving the Quality of Education: Strategies and Issues
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
In Primary and Secondary: Promote Students’ “综合素质” (Comprehensive
Qualification)
- “moral character, civic-mindedness, learning ability, communication and
cooperation, exercise and health, aesthetics and expression”
- problems in quantifiable and fair evaluations
- …corruption in admission

In Higher Education: universities competing for better students and faculty
- Adoption of international ranking system, to attract the best students nationwide
-Strong graduates on the labor market and strong alumni
- Using the ranking system to guide faculty evaluations created problems
-Pressure to publish increased plagarism rate
-Positive & negative effects on teaching: more exposure to frontier research but
less time for teaching
- Adopting career counseling and other student services…ramping up
- Converting 600 universities to “polytechnic” universities, announced 2014
From 2014, S&T Focus: State Council's "Decisions on
Advancing the Development of Modern Vocational Education”
 Vocational education is key to the economy, must be upgraded
 Gaokao changes to allow bridging between vocational students and general
college students (how?)
III
 Enterprises and industry associations involved in running vocational schools
- Partnerships between vocational schools and employers; employers
involved in course design, teaching methods, internships, and recruiting
- Mgmt boards of vocational schools should be less government-oriented and
have multiple stakeholders
 Government will fund investments in vocational education to ensure that the
above transitions can occur
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China’s number of students studying abroad has increased
dramatically, especially high school and undergrad students
III The Exam-Oriented System
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