Download Adolescent Girls in the Juvenile Justice System: Issues for Treatment

Adolescent Girls in the Juvenile
Justice System: Issues for
Treatment
Presented at
Women Across the Life Span: A National
Conference on Women, Addiction and Recovery,
July 13, 2004, Baltimore, MD
Presented by
Kara S. Riehman, Ph.D.
P.O. Box 12194 · 3040 Cornwallis Road · Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
Phone: 919-541-6422 · Fax: 919-485-5555 · [email protected] · www.rti.org
RTI International is a trade name of Research Triangle Institute.
Female Adolescent Offenders:
Increases in Juvenile Justice
Involvement

Between 1987 and 1996, arrests of
adolescent females increased 76%
compared to 46% among adolescent males.

Between 1981 and 1997, arrests of female
adolescents for violent crimes increased
103% compared to 27% for males.

Between 1990 and 1999, delinquency cases
involving drug offenses for females
increased by 107%.
2
Why the Increase in Crimes and
Violence among Girls?

“Cause” of increase in arrests among girls
disputed.

May not necessarily be due to increase in
violent behavior, but rather to changing
societal response to girls’ aggression, relabeling of girls’ family conflicts as violent
offenses, and gender bias in processing of
misdemeanor cases.
3
Girls’ and Boys’ Offenses Differ

Girls more likely to fight with a family
member, boys more likely to fight with
friends/strangers (Girls Inc., 1996).

Girls are disproportionately charged with
status offenses, and evidence suggests girls
are detained for less serious offenses than
boys, and are more likely to return to
detention for probation and technical
violations (Juvenile Detention alternative
Initiative study, as cited in ABA 2001).
4
Characteristics of Girls in the
Juvenile Justice System

2/3 of girls in the JJ system are of color,
primarily Black and Latino (Children’s
Defense Fund, 2003).

Female adolescent offenders have high
levels of:
 Family dysfunction
 Trauma and sexual abuse
 Mental health and substance abuse
problems
 High-risk sexual behaviors
 School problems
 Affiliation with deviant peers.
5
Family Dysfunction

Delinquent females have greater family
dysfunction than their male counterparts
(Chamberlain & Moore, 2003; Dakof 2000;
Riehman et al., 2003)

Families characterized by disengagement
and parental rejection, intensive parentadolescent conflict, and parental substance
use (Acoca, 1998; Dakof 2000).
6
Sexual Abuse

Studies have found high levels of abuse and
trauma among delinquent girls:

73% of girls entering the correctional
system reported being victims of abuse
(Chesney-Lind & Sheldon 1998).

Other estimates of sexual abuse among
delinquent girls ranges from 25-70%.
7
Trauma

84% of girls in detention experienced
major lifetime trauma (Lederman et al.,
2004).

65% of incarcerated adolescent girls had
experienced PTSD at some point in their
lives (Cauffman et al., 1998).
8
Mental Health

Delinquent females have high rates of
depression, anxiety and substance abuse
problems.

75% of detained girls reported mental health
problems (Teplin et al., 2002).
9
Substance Abuse

75% of detained girls reported regular use
of alcohol and/or drugs (Acoca 1999).

34% of detained girls had a substance
abuse disorder (Lederman et al., 2004).
10
High-Risk Sexual Behavior

Early sexual activity among delinquent girls.

Sexually abuse associated with early
initiation of sex.

Older male partners.

Less condom use among delinquent girls.
11
School and Peer Problems

Over 80% of detained girls have
experienced school problems such as
expulsion, suspension or being held back a
grade (Acoca 1998; Funk 1999).

Delinquent girls affiliate with peers who are
delinquent and substance users (Matsueda
& Anderson 1998; Hubbard & Pratt 2002).
12
How are Girls In JJ Different
from Boys?

Delinquent boys also experience many of
these problems.

However, delinquent girls are more likely to
have:






Family dysfunction
Sexual abuse
Mental health problems
School problems
Use more and “harder” drugs
Have friends who are delinquent and use
drugs.
13
Developmental Factors

Early sexual maturation among girls
associated with:
 Increased substance use
 Delinquency

Depression
Body image disturbances
Conduct problems

Lower academic success


Sources: Caspi et al., 1993; Stattin & Magnusson
1990; Graber et al., 1997
14
Why do Girls Differ from Boys?

Gender-specific pathways to delinquency
and substance use.

Relational theory (Gilligan and colleagues)
 Girls socialized to adopt stereotypically
“feminine” characteristics.

Strain theory (Agnew and colleagues)
 Apply relational theory to delinquency.

However, evidence supporting this theory
is equivocal.
15
What Gender Differences Mean
for the Treatment Process

Very little research examining how gender
differences in background and behavior lead
to different experiences in the treatment
process.

Findings from a qualitative study of
adolescent boys and girls adjudicated to a
residential treatment program in California
will be presented.
16
Study Sample

10 adolescents (7 boys, 3 girls) in the
juvenile justice system who were mandated
to a residential substance abuse treatment
program.

Qualitative interviews conducted with each
individual on 1st and 3rd day of program
entry, and in months following entry.

Part of larger quantitative study of 449
adolescent offenders in juvenile justice
system (ATM study, funded by CSAT).
17
Sample Characteristics

6 of 10 youths were Hispanic, 3 white, 1
African-American.

Between ages of 14 and 17.

Girls were using either methamphetamine
or cocaine.

Most boys (4 of 7) reported only marijuana
use.

These findings reflected in quantitative
sample, where girls were more likely to use
hard drugs, and used more drugs than boys.
18
Girls Have Different PreTreatment Peer and Family
Relationships (Quantitative)
Girls
Boys
(N=57)
(N=392)
Negative Family Environment (M)
5.51
3.43
Negative Peer Functioning (M)
6.96
5.62
Favorite drug is harder drug (%)
44.0
14.9
Depressive Symptoms (M)
2.13
1.83
Got drugs from sexual partner (%)
19.3
8.4
Did drugs with sexual partner (%)
45.6
25.3
Lived with sexual partner (%)
21.1
9.9
Satisfied w/ Family Relationship(M)
1.91
2.53
Satisfied w/sexual relationship (M)
1.91
2.53
General Social Support (M)
5.81
6.48
All differences significant at p<.05 or less
19
Girls Have Different PreTreatment Peer and Family
Relationships (Qualitative)

Girls had substance-using mothers

Girls report having older peers, usually
males with whom drugs are also used, and
males who provide instrumental support (as
opposed to emotional support)

Girls distrust other girls, had mostly male
friends

All 3 girls reported history of either sexual or
physical abuse
20
Girls Have Different
In-Treatment Problems
with Peers

Co-ed facility, mostly male

Girls had difficulty negotiating sexual
tension, sexuality

Little trust among girls within the program,
did not respond well to big sister structure

2 of 3 girls experienced sexual abuse in the
program
21
Gender Differences in Peer
Relationships are Relevant for
Treatment

Co-ed structure
 Girls used to relating to boys on sexual
level
 Sexual behavior more likely

Increased health risk for girls (pregnancy,
HIV, stds)

AWOL among girls centered around sexual
issues

Big-brother/big-sister model - girls don’t trust
other girls
22
Early Relationship Issues as
Precursors to Problematic
Adult Relationships

Peer groups of substance-using girls
include drug-using, dysfunctional males

Sexual relationships important for some
girls’ self-esteem (may be due to sexual
abuse history)

Girls don’t rely on other girls for social
support

Girls may become dependent on oppositesex relationships

This pattern may continue into adulthood
23
Other Treatment Issues

Literature emphasizes need for
developmentally appropriate interventions.

However, literature rarely mentions youths’
burgeoning sexuality or explorations of
power and privileges that sexuality confers.

Sexuality a very salient issue for female and
male adolescents, and should not be
overlooked in treatment milieu.
24
References

Acoca, L. (1998). Outside/inside: The violation of American girls at home, on
the streets, and in the juvenile justice system. Crime and Delinquency, 44,
561-589.

Acoca, L. (1999). Investing in girls: A 21st century strategy. Juvenile Justice,
vol 6 (1). Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and
delinquency. Criminology, 30, 47-87.

Agnew, R. & Brezina, T. (1997). Relational problems with peers, gender, and
delinquency. Youth and Society, 29(1), 84-111.

American Bar Association and National Bar Association. (2001). Justice by
gender: The lack of appropriate prevention, diversion, and treatment
alternatives for girls in the justice system. Washington, DC: ABA.

Caspi, A., Lynam, D., Moffit, T., and Silva, P. (1993). Unraveling girls’
delinquency: Biological, dispositional, and contextual contributions to
adolescent misbehavior. Developmental Psychology, 29 (1), 19-30.

Cauffman, E., Feldman, S.s., Waterman, J., & Steiner, H. (1998).
Posttraumatic stress disorder among female juvenile offenders. Journal of
the american Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1209-1216.

Centers for Disease Control. (1998). Youth risk behavioral surveillance –
United States, 1997. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 47, 1-23.
25
References

Chesney-Lind, M. & Sheldon, R.G. (1998). Girls, delinquency, and juvenile
justice. Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Chamberlain, P. & Moore, K.J. (2003). Chaos and trauma in the lives of
adolescent females with antisocial behavior and delinquency. Journal of
Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 6,79-108.

Children's Defense Fund. Girls and juvenile justice: Quick facts. Retrieved
from http://www.childrensdefense.org/ss_jjfs_girlsjj.php (September 11,
2003)

Dakof, G.A. (2000). Understanding gender differences in adolescent drug
abuse: Issues of comorbidity and family functioning. Journal of Psychoactive
Drugs, 32, 25-32.

Funk, S.J. (1999). Risk assessment for juveniles on probation: A focus on
gender. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 26(1), 44-68.

Girls Incorporated. (1996). Prevention and parity: Girls in juvenile justice.
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention.

Graber, J., Lewinsohn, P.M., Seeley, J.R., Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Is
psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development?
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry; 36:
1768-1776.

Hubbard, D.J. & Pratt, T.C. (2002). A meta-analysis of the predictors of
delinquency among girls. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 34, 1-13.
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References

Lederman, C.S., Dakof, G.A., Larrea, M.A. & Li, J. (2004). Characteristics of adolescent
females in juvenile detention. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. In Press.

Lenssen, S.A.M., Doreleijers, T.A.H., van Dijk, M.E. & Hartman, C.A. (2000). Girls in
detention: what are their characteristics: A project to explore and document the character
of this target group and the significant ways in which it differs from one consisting of
boys. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 287-303.

Mason, W.A., Zimmerman, L., & William, E. (1998). Sexual and physical abuse among
incarcerated youth: Implications for sexual behavior, contraceptive use, and teenage
pregnancy. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22, 987-995.

Matsueda, R. & Anderson, K. (1998). The dynamics of delinquent peers and delinquent
behavior. Criminology, 36, 269-298.

Morris, R.E., Baker, C.J., & Huscroft, S. (1992). Incarcerated youth at risk for HIV
infection. In R.J. DiClemente (Ed.) Adolescents and AIDS: A generation in jeopardy (pp.
52-70). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Riehman, K.S., Bluthenthal, R.B., Juvonen, J., & Morral, A.. 2004. “Adolescents’ social
relationships and the treatment process: Findings from quantitative and qualitative
analyses.” Journal of Drug Issues. 33(4), 865-96.

Stattin, H. and Magnusson, D. (1990). Pubertal maturation in female development.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Teplin, L.A., Abram, K.M., McLelland, G.M., Dulcan, M.K., & Mericle, A.A. (2002).
Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59,
1133-1143.
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