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Chapter 11 - Functional Programming, Part II: ML, Delayed Evaluation, and Haskell Programming Languages: Principles and Practice, 2nd Ed. Kenneth C. Louden © Kenneth C. Louden, 2003 1 Beyond Scheme Static typing: Scheme does strong type checking of values -- but only at execution time. Thus, programs must be almost entirely debugged during execution. Delayed evaluation: Scheme's evaluation rule is standard, which Scheme's built-in functions often deviate from. To get other evaluation orders, there is a significant programming overhead. ML has strong static Hindley-Milner type checking (Chapter 6). Haskell is purely functional and has delayed evaluation, which takes advantage of purity. Haskell also has overloading, which Scheme & ML do not. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 2 ML ("MetaLanguage") Dates from 1978, with a new standard in 1997. Invented by Robin Milner (UK). Very popular in Europe. Standard translator is Standard ML of New Jersey (Princeton & BellLabs). A popular variant is CAML ("Categorical Abstract Machine Language"). All definitions and expressions are type checked prior to execution. Otherwise very similar to Scheme, but with a more C-like (or Ada-like) syntax. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 3 Sample ML Code > fun fact n = if n = 0 then 1 else n * fact(n-1); val fact = fn: int -> int > val Pi = 3.14159; NOT multiplication val Pi = 3.14159 : real (see slide 13) > 2 :: [3,4]; val it = [2,3,4] : int list > (1,2,3.1); val it = (1,2,3.1) : int * int * real > fun append([],L) = L | append(h::t,L) = h::append(t,L); val append = fn : 'a list * 'a list -> 'a list Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 4 Notes about Sample ML Code Each piece of code is followed by the interpreter response as if entered directly (SML-NJ). Arithmetic is infix, not prefix as in Scheme. All expressions are statically typed (next slide). There are two basic kinds of declarations, fun and val (like the two kinds of defines in Scheme). Lists are written using square brackets and commas, with :: as the cons operator. ML also has built-in tuples (Cartesian products), written with commas and parentheses. Functions can be defined using patterns (slide 11). Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 5 Overview of static typing in ML For more, see Chapter 6. Historically, functional programmers resisted static typing because they hated having to define the type of every variable and function. But static typing is clearly a good thing from a software engineering perspective. Hindley (a mathematician) showed already in 1969 how a translator could infer most types, but computer scientists mostly ignored him. Milner rediscovered Hindley's algorithm in 1978 and applied it to ML ("MetaLanguage"). Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 6 Type checking in ML Say we have a function definition in ML (slide 4): fun fact n = if n = 0 then 1 else n * fact(n-1); ML has an easy time inferring its type: val fact = fn : int -> int It does so by assigning type variables 'a, 'b, etc. to the identifiers and then uses the definition to infer special information about those types: n = 0 shows that n must have int type (comparison to an int). The inferred types are as general as possible, so can themselves contain type variables (i.e. are polymorphic): > fun id x = x; val id = fn : 'a -> 'a Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 7 Type checking in ML (2) Type checking places some strong restrictions on data, as noted in the following points. Lists have to be all of the same type (like arrays): > [1,2,3.1]; Error: operator and operand don't agree [literal] operator domain: int * int list operand: int * real list in expression: 2 :: 3.1 :: nil Lists and tuples cannot model recursive structures, so user-defined types that can be recursive must be introduced. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 8 Type checking in ML (3) Hindley-Milner type checking usually requires no type information, but sometimes it needs a type to resolve an ambiguity: > []@[]; (* @ is the append operation *) stdIn:20.1-20.8 Warning: type vars not generalized because of value restriction are instantiated to dummy types (X1,X2,...) val it = [] : ?.X1 list > ([]:int list)@[]; val it = [] : int list Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 9 Type checking in ML (4) ML also has a built-in prejudice towards integer types in ambiguous arithmetic cases: > fun square x = x * x; val square = fn : int -> int Thus, if we want a square function, say, on floating point values, we must include a type: > fun squaref (x:real) = x * x; val squaref = fn : real -> real Nevertheless, in most cases, Hindley-Milner type checking removes the burden of specifying types. Note also that ML's type system does not accept overloading: if we want a square function for both ints and reals we must use two different names. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 10 Equality types in ML ML makes a strong distinction between ordinary types and types for which the equality test (the = operator) can be applied to values. The = operator, unlike Scheme, is a general equality test; however, it cannot be used on functions or even real numbers: > 2 = 2; val it = true : bool > map = map; ... Error: operator and operand don't agree [equality type required] > 2.0 = 2.0; ... Error: operator and operand don't agree [equality type required] Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 11 Equality types in ML (2) Polymorphic type variables that must range over equality types use two quotes instead of a single quote: > op =; val it = fn : ''a * ''a -> bool Anytime the = operator is used in code, the types get restricted to the equality types: > fun funny x = if x = x then x else x; val funny = fn : ''a -> ''a Make sure when writing code that you avoid using = unless you really need it: > fun empty L = if L = [] (* wrong! *) then true else false; val empty = fn : ''a list -> bool Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 12 Pattern matching in ML Hindley-Milner type checking relies on pattern matching to infer types. Pattern matching is also available to programmers, so we can define functions on lists by using the patterns [] (empty) and h::t (a list with head h and tail t) -- the definition of append on slide 4 is an example (equivalent to built-in @ function). Patterns can also be used for numbers and tuples, and the underscore _ can be used to match anything anonymously: fun fact 0 = 1 | fact n = n*fact(n-1); fun first (x,_) = x; Because of patterns, head and tail functions (hd & tl in ML) are used much less than in Scheme. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 13 Pattern matching in ML (cont.) The use of pattern matching and the vertical bar in a function definition is just syntactic sugar for a case expression: fun fact 0 = 1 | fact n = n*fact(n-1); is the same as fun fact n = case n of 0 => 1 | _ => n * fact(n-1); Non-exhaustive patterns result in a warning: > fun hd (h::_) = h; ... Warning: match nonexhaustive h :: _ => ... val hd = fn : 'a list -> 'a Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 14 Data structures in ML ML has user-defined types, of two kinds. Type synonyms -- just another name for an existing type: Asterisk means > type Coords = real * real; "tuple" in a type type Coords = real * real > (2.1,3.2):Coords; val it = (2.1,3.2) : Coords Constructors - create New types: values of the type datatype Direction = North | East | South | West; Either kind can be polymorphic: type 'a Pair = 'a * 'a; Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 15 Data structures in ML (cont.) Constructor parameter A polymorphic binary search tree: (only one in ML) datatype 'a BST = Nil | Node of 'a 'a BST 'a BST; A traversal function that uses pattern matching: fun tree_to_list Nil = [] | tree_to_list(Node(d,l,r)) = (tree_to_list l)@[d]@(tree_to_list r); The type of this function is fn:'a BST -> 'a list Here is a use: val t = Node("dog",Node("cat",Nil,Nil),Nil); > tree_to_list t; val it = ["cat","dog"] : string list Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 16 Higher-order functions in ML Like Scheme, ML has function-valued expressions (lambdas in Scheme), but with a somewhat different syntax: > fn x => x * x; val it = fn : int -> int > (fn x => x * x) 4; val it = 16 : int > map (fn x => x * x) [2,3,4]; val it = [4,9,16] : int list A fun declaration is really just a val declaration: > val square = fn x => x * x; val square = fn : int -> int Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 17 Higher-order functions (cont.) Unlike Scheme, top-level val declarations are not automatically recursive in ML: > val fact = fn n => if n = 0 then 1 else n * fact (n-1); stdIn:20.45-20.49 Error: unbound variable or constructor: fact > val rec fact = fn n => if n = 0 then 1 else n * fact (n-1); val fact = fn : int -> int Another example of a higher-order function: > fun twice f x = f (f x); val twice = fn : ('a -> 'a) -> 'a -> 'a > twice square 3; val it = 81 : int Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 18 Curried Functions Notice the ML type of the twice function: ('a -> 'a) -> 'a -> 'a -- a function taking a function from 'a to 'a as a parameter and returning a function from 'a to 'a as a result. Or: a function taking two parameters, one of type 'a -> 'a and a second of type 'a, and returning a value of type 'a as a result. So we could also write > twice square; val it = fn : int -> int Moral: the twice function can take either one or two parameters; if you give it one, it returns a function of the (missing) 2nd parameter Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 19 Curried Functions (2) Contrast the previous definition of twice with a definition using a tuple: > fun twice2 (f,x) = f (f x); val twice2 = fn : ('a -> 'a) * 'a -> 'a Now we must always supply both parameters at every call: > twice2 square; Error: operator and operand don't agree [tycon mismatch] ... > twice2 (square,3); val it = 81 : int The twice function is Curried (named after Haskell B. Curry), the twice2 function is not. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 20 Curried Functions (3) Definition: A function taking multiple parameters is Curried if it can be viewed as a (higher-order) function of a single parameter. Currying is good, since all functions can be viewed as having just a single parameter, and higher-order functions can be obtained automatically. In ML, all function definitions not using tuples explicitly are automatically Curried. (In Scheme the opposite is true.) However, in ML all infix functions are implicitly not Curried: > op +; val it = fn : int * int -> int Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 21 Variables in ML Like Scheme, ML is not purely functional, and ML functions need not be referentially transparent. Unlike Scheme, variables in ML must be handled differently from ordinary names; thus, nonfunctional constructs are more obvious. A variable has type t ref, where t is the type of the value stored in it. ML uses := for assignment (like Ada), except that the lhs must have type t ref and the rhs must have type t. To get the value out of a variable, you must dereference it using the exclamation mark as a (prefix) dereferencing operator. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 22 Variables in ML (cont.) Here is sample code in ML, showing the use of a variable, and a function inc that increments an integer variable: > val n = ref 2; (*must be initialized*) val n = ref 2 : int ref > fun inc x = x := !x + 1; val inc = fn : int ref -> unit > inc n; Unit type is like void: val it = () : unit return value contains > n; val it = ref 3 : int ref no information. > !n; val it = 3 : int Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 23 Sequencing and I/O in ML Any group of expressions can be evaluated in sequence by putting them inside a set of parentheses and separating them by semicolons: > (print "Hello ";print "World\n"); Hello World val it = () : unit Besides the print function there are many I/O functions in the TextIO structure (like a Java package): > open TextIO; (* like Java import *) ... (* ML lists imports here *) > fun echo () = let val s = inputLine stdIn in output(TextIO.stdOut,s) end; val echo = fn : unit -> unit Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 24 Sequencing and I/O in ML (2) We call the echo function by giving it the unit value: > echo (); now is the time now is the time val it = () : unit String input can be converted to numbers using various "fromString" functions, similar to "parse" methods in Java: > Real.fromString; val it = fn : string -> real option > Int.fromString "123"; val it = SOME 123 : int option > Int.fromString "abc"; val it = NONE : int option Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 25 Sequencing and I/O in ML (3) Note in the fromString functions the use of an option type to indicate that a conversion may fail: > datatype 'a option = SOME of 'a | NONE; Failure can also be represented in ML using exceptions: > exception SyntaxError; exception SyntaxError; > fun f x = if x <> 0 then x else raise SyntaxError; val f = fn : Int -> Int > f 0 handle SyntaxError => (print "oops!\n";42); oops! val it = 42 : int Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 26 Last example - a gcd test driver: fun euclid () = (* from pages 501-502 of text *) ( output(stdOut, "Enter two integers:\n"); flushOut(stdOut); let val u = Int.fromString(inputLine(stdIn)); val v = Int.fromString(inputLine(stdIn)) in case (u,v) of (SOME x, SOME y) => ( output(stdOut,"The gcd of "); output(stdOut,Int.toString(x)); output(stdOut," and "); output(stdOut,Int.toString(y)); output(stdOut," is "); output(stdOut,Int.toString(gcd(x,y))); output(stdOut,"\n") ) | _ => output(stdOut, "Bad input.\n") end ) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 27 Delayed evaluation ML and Scheme obey the standard "applicativeorder" evaluation rule (as do C and Java): all parameters (arguments) are evaluated prior to the execution of a call. It is surprising how often we need a different rule: (define (my-if a b c) (if a b c)) This definition can't work because both b and c are evaluated before the call. Scheme has manual facilities for delaying evaluation of parameters: (define (my-if a b c) (if a (force b) (force c)) ;; now the following code works: (my-if #T (delay 1) (delay (/ 1 0))) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 28 Delay and force in Scheme Delay creates a "promise" to evaluate an expression, but doesn't evaluate it: (delay (+ 3 4)) #<promise> Force causes the "promise" to be fulfilled: the expression is evaluated and the result returned (but the promise is not turned into the value -- it stays a promise): > (define E (delay (+ 3 4))) > (force E) 7 > E #<promise> Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 29 Uses of delayed evaluation We can write "special forms" (functions not obeying standard evaluation) directly in the language. Potentially unbounded data can be manipulated without worrying about infinite loops: (define (intlist m n) (if (> m n) '() (cons m (intlist (+ 1 m) n)))) But: (define (ints-from m) (cons m (delay (ints-from (+ m 1))))) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 30 Uses of delayed evaluation (cont.) Now we can take as many integers from this potentially infinite list as we want: (define (take n L) (if (= n 0) '() (cons (car (force L)) (take (- n 1) (cdr (force L)))))) Then: > (take 10 (delay (ints-from 1))) (1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10) Delayed lists are called streams, and they promote a very effective programming technique called generator-filter programming (see next slide). Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 31 Generator-filter programming A delayed filter function (see Chapter 11, Part I, slide 30): (define (d-filter p L) Filters (cond ((null? L) L) Generator ((p (car (force L))) (delay (cons (car (force L)) (d-filter p (cdr (force L)))))) (else (d-filter p (cdr (force L)))))) Now we can combine generators and filters: > (take 20 (d-filter odd? (delay (ints-from 1))) (1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 32 Memoization Promises would be extremely inefficient, if they evaluated their contained expressions every time they are forced. In fact, promises are memoized: the contained expression is evaluated at most once, on the first force; the value is then stored and used for all subsequent forces, as shown in Scheme by using take with the following rewrite of the ints-from function of slide 24 (it only prints each number once): (define (ints-from n) (display "computing ") (display n)(newline) (cons n (delay (ints-from (+ n 1))))) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 33 Lazy Evaluation Built-in delayed evaluation with memoization is called lazy evaluation It works well only with pure functional programs, since the order of evaluation is unpredictable (so all functions must be referentially transparent). Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 34 Properties of lazy evaluation All arguments to user-defined functions are delayed. All bindings of local names in let and letrec expressions are delayed. All arguments to constructor functions (such as cons) are delayed. All arguments to other predefined functions, such as the arithmetic functions "+," "*," and so on are forced. All function-valued arguments are forced. All conditions in selection functions such as if and cond are forced. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 35 Haskell A fully-Curried lazy purely functional language with Hindley-Milner static typing. (Fully-Curried means all functions, including built-in arithmetic, are implicitly Curried.) Has many other features that make it perhaps the most advanced functional language available today. Includes overloading and a built-in mechanism for generator-filter programming (called list comprensions -- see slide 36). Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 36 Sample Haskell code: fact n = if n == 0 then 1 else n * fact (n-1) square x = x * x pi1 = 3.14159 gcd1 u v = if v == 0 then u else gcd1 v (mod u v) squarelist lis = if (null lis) then lis else square (head lis): squarelist (tail lis) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 37 Haskell properties Parentheses are only necessary for grouping. Semicolons are usually unnecessary (see slide 34). Definitions have no special syntax, so they must be loaded from a file—they cannot be entered directly into an interpreter. Operators are infix. Lists are written using square brackets and commas (e.g. [1,2,3]), with ++ as the list append operation, and : (colon) as the list constructor operation. All value and function names must start with a lowercase letter, and all types are uppercase: Int. Names cannot be redefined, hence the use of pi1 & gcd1 in the previous slide (pi & gcd are predefined). Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 38 Haskell properties (2) Haskell is purely functional, so there are no variables or assignments, and I/O and sequencing cannot be done except using special tools, called monads (which we do not study here). Of course, there are still local definitions: let x = 2; y = 3 in x + y or: let x = 2 y = 3 in x + y Note indentation in the previous code to get rid of the semicolon: Haskell uses a two-dimensional Layout Rule to remove extra syntax. Leading white space matters! Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 39 Haskell properties (3) Note lambda syntax All local definitions are recursive: f x = let z = x-1 g = \y->if y==0 then z else g(y-1) in g x + 2 Comment All expressions are delayed in Haskell: ones = 1:ones -- can also write [1,1..] ints_from n = n : ints_from (n+1) ints = ints_from 1 -- also: [1..] Infix operators can be made prefix by putting parentheses around them: double lis = map ((*) 2) lis Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 40 Haskell properties (4) Hindley-Milner type checking is performed on all definitions and expressions. Type variables use the names a, b, c, etc. (in contrast to ML, which uses single quotes before the name). Types are not automatically displayed as in ML, but can be viewed by using the :t command in the interpreter. Small sample interpreter session: > [1]++[2] [1,2] > :t (++) (++) :: [a] -> [a] -> [a] > [1]++['a'] ERROR - ... Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 41 Patterns in Haskell Patterns can be used in function definitions as in ML, except that no vertical bar needs to separate different patterns in a function definition (all patterns must, however, be written together). Typical patterns are 0 for zero, [] for the empty list, and (x:xs) for a nonempty list. fact and squarelist from slide 31 using patterns: fact 0 = 1 fact n = n * fact (n-1) squarelist [] = [] squarelist (x:xs) = (square x) : squarelist xs Of course, it would be better to use map: squarelist lis = map square lis Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 42 Patterns in Haskell (cont.) Because of patterns, it is unusual in Haskell to use head, tail, and null. The anonymous wildcard pattern (matches anything) is the underscore in Haskell as in ML. Overlapping patterns are ok (see fact on previous slide). Non-exhaustive patterns can also be used, and do not generate a warning as in ML: head1 (h:_) = h -- no warning message! (Of course, the call head [] will still result in an error.) Patterns are syntactic sugar for case expressions: fact n = case n of 0 -> 1 _ -> n * fact (n-1) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 43 Haskell List Comprehensions Generators and filters can be expressed together in Haskell in a quasi-list notation called a list comprehension: odds = [n | n <- ints, mod n 2 /= 0] -- can also write [1,3..] Multiple generators and filters can be combined in a single list comprehension: mystery = [n+m|n <-ints, m <-ints, mod n m /= 0] List comprehensions allow many snappy programs to be written: sieve (h:t) = h:sieve [n|n <- t, mod n h /= 0] primes = sieve [2..] Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 44 Haskell Data Structures So far we have only seen lists in Haskell, although we know that static typing does not allow lists to imitate structs or classes as in Scheme. Haskell has built-in tuple types (like ML), which are Cartesian products (like structs but with no field names): intWithRoot:: Int -> (Int,Double) intWithRoot x = (x , sqrt (fromInt x)) Use patterns to get the components out: rootOf x = let (_,r)=intWithRoot x in r Tuple types are written the same way values are, (not like ML, which uses asterisks). Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 45 Haskell Data Structures (2) Lists and tuples do not go far enough, since unions cannot be expressed. User-defined types can be introduced using data definitions: data Direction = North|East|South|West Very similar to ML datatype definition: the name on the left of a data definition is the type name; the names on the right are constructors representing values. Haskell can have polymorphic types and constructors with more than one parameter (and type variables are written after the type name, not before as in ML): data Either1 a b = Left1 a | Right1 b Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 46 Haskell Data Structures (3) Note how the previous definition expresses a tagged union of two polymorphic types. Binary search tree example (recursive type): data BST a = Nil | Node a (BST a) (BST a) simpleBST = Node "horse" Nil Nil -- value Constructors can be used as patterns: tree_to_list Nil = [] tree_to_list (Node val left right) = (tree_to_list left) ++ [val] ++ (tree_to_list right) Type synonyms can also be defined: type IntDouble = (Int,Double) Note: all type and constructor names must be uppercase. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 47 Overloading in Haskell Many functions in Haskell are overloaded, in that they can take values from a (finite) number of different types. An easy example is the square function, defined by square x = x * x. The type of square in Haskell is: square :: Num a => a -> a This says basically that square is defined for any Num a type (such types all have a * function). The type Num a => a is called a qualified type, and Num is called a type class. Type classes are a bit like Java interfaces: they require that a certain function be defined, and each associated type must then implement it. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 48 Overloading in Haskell (2) Here is an example of how to define a Sizeable type class that provides a measure of the size of a piece of data: class Sizeable a where size:: a -> Int Now any type that you want to implement Sizeable must be declared an instance of the Sizeable class: (i.e., belongs to that class): instance Sizeable [a] where size = length instance Sizeable (BST a) where size Nil = 0 size (Node d l r) = (size l)+(size r) + 1 Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 49 Overloading in Haskell (3) Now any use of the size function automatically adds the Sizeable qualification to a type: trivial x = size x == 0 This function has type: Sizeable a => a -> Bool Type classes usually require multiple functions: class Num a where (+), (-), (*) :: a -> a -> a negate :: a -> a abs :: a -> a ...etc. Built-in "hidden" instance Num Int where definitions (+) = primPlusInt (-) = primMinusInt negate = primNegInt ...etc. Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 50 Overloading in Haskell (4) Type classes may need to "inherit" functions from other type classes (similar to interface inheritance in Java): class Eq a where (==), (/=) :: a -> a -> Bool x == y = not (x/=y) Note default definitions x /= y = not (x==y) class (Eq a) => Ord a where (<),(<=),(>=),(>) :: a -> a -> Bool max, min :: a -> a -> a instance Eq Int where … instance Ord Int where ... Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 51 Numeric Type Class Hierarchy Eq (==) Ord (<) Num (+,-,*) Real Integral (div, mod) Show (show ) Fractional (/) RealFrac (round, trunc) Floating (sin, cos) RealFloat Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 52 Overloading in Haskell (5) The Show class allows a data type to be displayed as a String (e.g. by the interpreter): class Show a where show :: a -> String So many data types need to be made instances of Show and Eq that Haskell can do it automatically: data BST a = Nil | Node a (BST a) (BST a) deriving (Show,Eq) Overloading presents challenges for Hindley-Milner type checking that result in some surprises: squarelist = map square (compare to slide 36) gives squarelist the type [Integer] -> [Integer] (no overloading!) Chapter 11 - Part II K. Louden, Programming Languages 53