Download Week 3 Learning Lecture 2 slides

Learning
Chapter 5
HR 101
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POSSIBLE EXAM AND TEST QUESTIONS
Personality:
Distinguish between type and trait theories of personality (6
marks)
Discuss A and B personality characteristics and explain the
relationship between personality and stress. (8 marks)
What are the main factors that contribute to stress in
organisations? (6 marks)
Identify and illustrate with appropriate examples individual and
organizational stress management strategies (10) marks
Evaluate the benefits and problems of psychometric assessment
as a tool to assist management decision-making, especially in
selection (12 marks)
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TRAINING/LEARNING/DEVELOPMENT
LINKED TO ORGANIZATIONAL NEEDS
•
The nature of the modern business environment,
especially focus on knowledge management and
development makes training/learning important.
•
Rapid change requires that employees continually
learn new skills.
•
Growing reliance on teamwork creates a demand for
the ability to solve problems in teams, an ability that
often requires formal training/education/learning.
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Expert Group on New Skills for New Jobs
(European Commission, 2010):
“Many of the jobs in 2015 and most of the jobs in
2030 do not currently exist and cannot be foreseen
yet.”
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ROLE OF THE EU IN LEARNING
Integrated
its educational and training
initiatives under a single umbrella “Lifelong
Learning Programme”.
Budget €7 billion 2007-20013
4 Sub programmes:
Comenius for schools
Erasmus for higher education
Leonardo da Vinci Vocational Education & Training
Grundtvig for adult education
(www.ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learningprogramme)
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KEY COMPETENCIES FOR LIFELONG
LEARNING
EU PARLIAMENT AND COUNCIL
Communication in the mother tongue
Communication in foreign languages
Mathematical competence and basic competences
in science and technology
Digital competence
Leaning to learn
Social and civic competences
Sense of initiative and entrepreneurship
Cultural awareness and expression
(Recommendation of the European Parliament and of
the Council, of 18 Dec 2006)
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LEARNING DEFINED
Process
of acquiring knowledge through
experience which leads to a change in
behaviour (Huczynski & Buchanan, (2007)
Relative
permanent change in behaviour
that occurs through experience (Santrock,
2002)
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WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning is not directly observable – we must
infer that it occurs by looking at its observable
effects i.e. behaviour
Learning is measured in terms of relatively
permanent changes in behaviour
Relatively permanent change in human
capabilities that is not a result of growth
processes
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What does “LEARNING” mean to you?
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APPROACHES TO LEARNING
The
behaviourist approach to learning
Cognitive
approach to learning
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BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
Behaviorism, with its emphasis on experimental
methods, focuses on variables we can observe,
measure, and manipulate,
Avoids whatever is subjective, internal, and
unavailable -- i.e. mental.
In the experimental method, the standard
procedure is to manipulate one variable, and
then measure its effects on another
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BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology
that assumes that learning occurs through
interactions with the environment.
Two other assumptions of this theory are:
that the environment shapes behavior …
…and that taking internal mental states such as
thoughts, feelings, and emotions into consideration is
useless in explaining behavior.
There are two major types of conditioning:
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TYPES OF CONDITIONING…
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
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MAJOR THINKERS IN
BEHAVIORISM
Ivan
B.
Pavlov
F. Skinner
Edward
John
Thorndike
B. Watson
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Discovered by Russian
physiologist Ivan
Pavlov,
Classical conditioning
is a learning process
that occurs through
associations between
an environmental
stimulus and a
naturally occurring
stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov (1849 -1936)
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PAVLOV'S DROOLING DOGS…
What is the Pavlov dog experiment?
When a dog encounters food, saliva
starts to pour from the salivary glands
located in the back of its oral cavity.
This saliva is needed in order to make
the food easier to swallow.
Pavlov struck a bell and the dogs learned
to associate the sound of the bell with
food, after a while, at the mere sound of
the bell, they responded by drooling.
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PAVLOV'S DROOLING DOGS…
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APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
(association of one stimulus with another)
CC
is present when a song reminds you of
a place or a person. The song has
conditioned you to think about that
particular subject – even though you do
not realise it
Jingles
and advertisements allow you to
think of a companies product when you
hear its name, slogan or jingle
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OPERANT CONDITIONING –
Learning through Consequences
Most associated with
the work of Thorndike
and B.F. Skinner
Is a form of associative
learning in which the
consequences of
behaviour change the
probability of a
behaviours occurrence.
1904 - 1990
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Operant Conditioning
The likelihood of a behaviour can be increased by
the use of reinforcement.
behaviour
hard work
followed by
encourages
reinforcer
sweets
•The likelihood of a behaviour can be decreased
by the use of punishment.
behaviour
talking in
cinema
followed by
punishment
ice down
back
discourages
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TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
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Reinforcement regimes: Positive reinforcement
Behaviour
Positive
reinforcement
Example
Example
Reinforcement
Result
Desired
behaviour
occurs
Positive
consequences
are introduced
Work
completed to
schedule
Manager praises
employee
each time work
is completed
on schedule
Increases desired
behaviours
Teacher praises
your
performance
You increasingly
turn in
homework on
time
Turn in
homework
on time
Desire behaviour is
repeated
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Reinforcement regimes: Negative reinforcement
Behaviour
Negative
reinforcement
(Unpleasant
stimulus removed)
Desired
behaviour
occurs
Reinforcement
Negative
consequences
are withdrawn
Result
Desire behaviour is
repeated
Supervisor
If error occurs again
Employee
completes task stops criticizing supervisor criticizes.
correctly after employee
repeated
criticism from
supervisor
Example
Turn your
homework in
on time
Example
Teacher stops
criticizing late
homework
You increasingly turn in
homework on time
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Reinforcement regimes: Punishment
Behaviour
Punishment
Undesired
behaviour
occurs
Reinforcement
Result
A single act of
punishment is
introduced
Undesired behaviour
is not repeated
Manager asks
employee to
stay late when
work is not
handed in on
schedule
Eliminates or
decreases undesired
behaviours
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Reinforcement regimes: Extinction
Behaviour
Extinction
Reinforcement
Result
Undesired
behaviour
occurs
The behaviour
is ignored
Undesired behaviour is
not repeated
Practical jokes
Ignores
employees
practical jokes
Eliminates or decreases
undesired behaviours
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Video
Behaviour and Fear Conditioning Video
http://www.psychologicalharassment.com/psychol
ogy_videos.htm
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Continuous and Partial (Intermittent)
Partial Reinforcement:
Ratio vs Interval schedules
Fixed vs Variable schedules
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Behaviourist Approach - Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement
Schedule
Description
Implications
continuous
reinforcement after every
correct response
fixed ratio
reinforcement after a
predetermined number of
correct responses
reinforcement after a random
number of correct responses
reinforcement of a correct
response after a
predetermined period
reinforcement of a correct
response after random
periods
can establish high performance, but
can also lead to satiation; rapid
extinction when reinforcement is
withheld
tends to generate high rates of
desired responses
variable ratio
fixed interval
variable
interval
can produce a high response rate
that is resistant to extinction
can produce uneven response
patterns, slow following
reinforcement, vigorous immediately
preceding reinforcement
can produce a high response rate
that is resistant to extinction
Based on Fred Luthans and Robert Kreitner, Organizational Behaviour Modification and Beyond, Scott Foresman, Glenview, IL, 1985.
Reference: Page 113
Huczynski & Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour 6e, © Pearson Education 2007
28 / 35
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PATTERN AND TIMING OF REWARDS….
Variable ratio rewards a
behaviour an average
number of times but on an
unpredictable basis
For example:
Slot machines are on a
variable-ratio schedule of
reinforcement – the slot
machine may pay off twice
in a row, but the gambler
does not know when this
payoff will be
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RESEARCH ON OPERANT CONDITIONING
IN ORGANIZATIONS
Special payment rewards
Prizes for effective work
Bonuses
Employee of the month
Photo in news letter
etc
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RULES FOR USE (OC)
Do not give the same level of reward to all
employees
Remember that your failure to respond to
behaviour has reinforcing consequences
You need to inform employees which behaviours
are to be rewarded
Provide informative feedback on performance
Have consequences relative to behaviour
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BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
Identify critical, observable and measurable work related
performance to be encouraged (on-time delivery; quality;
quantity)
Measure the current frequency of these behaviours
Establish the triggers for those behaviours and establish
the consequences (positive/ negative- that follow from these
behaviours)
Develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired
behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours
Evaluate the effectiveness of the approach
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PROBLEMS WITH BEHAVIOUR
MODIFICATION
Is
it manipulative?
We
do not all respond the same way to the
same reinforcers
Once
started, a behaviour modification
programme has to be sustained
There
may not be enough extrinsic
motivators (money etc) available
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BEHAVIORISM PROS AND CONS
Pros: “Scientific”
Deals with observable,
Rigorous methodology
measurable phenomena
Con:
Ignores the things that make
humans “human”
Cognitions (the mental process of acquiring
knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition,
or perception)
Emotions
“Free Will”
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SELF-REGULATION AND
COGNITION
We can exercise control over our behavior through selfregulation
We are not slaves to environmental influences
We have free will
Cognition (process of acquiring knowledge by the use of
reasoning, intuition, or perception) allows us to use
previous experiences, rather than trial-and-error, to foresee
probable consequences of our acts, and behave accordingly
Self-regulation allows us to choose behaviors that help us
to avoid punishments and move towards long-term goals
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THEREFORE ….
Albert
Bandura’s
(1960s +) Social
Learning Theory
Social Cognitive
Theory
Put
the “person”
back into
personality and
learning!
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SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OR
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
People learn by observing the behaviour of
models and acquiring the belief that they can
produce behaviours to influence events in their
lives.
Behaviourism ignores the cognition and emotion:
assumes that actual reinforcement is necessary
for learning to occur (rejects free will).
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BEYOND REINFORCEMENT 1
External reinforcement isn’t the only way in
which behavior is acquired, maintained, or
altered
We can also learn by observing, reading, or
hearing about others’ behavior
We develop anticipated consequences for our behaviors even for behaviors we’re never engaged in
Our cognitive abilities give us the capability for insight
and foresight
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BEYOND REINFORCEMENT 2
Bandura’s
biggest contribution to learning
theory:
New patterns of behavior can be acquired in
the absence of external reinforcement
We can pay attention to what others do, and
repeat their actions
i.e., We learn through observation, rather than
through direct reinforcement
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MODELING
We
learn much of what we do through
observing and speaking with others
(“models”), rather than through personal
experience
We
form a cognitive image of how to
perform certain behaviors through
modeling, and use this image as a guide
for later behaviors
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BASIC PROCESSES OF OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
1. Attention
Pay attention to the model’s behaviour
2. Retention Processes
(remember the
model’s behavior, recall when needed)
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BASIC PROCESSES OF OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
3.Reproduction
(we must be physically capable of reproducing the model’s
Behaviour or something similar to it)
4. Motivation
(we must be motivated to display the
behaviour)
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SUMMARY
We acquire, maintain, and modify behaviors that we see
others perform
We decide which behaviors to keep, and when to use them,
by using:
symbolic thought (“what are my long term goals?”)
emotion
self-regulation (“I really want to tell my lecturer this subject is
awful, but I need an A, so…”)
Bandura and other Social Learning Theorists put the
“person” back into personality by stressing the interplay of
personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior
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SOCIAL LEARNING: APPLIED
In an organization setting we might begin by:
Deciding I want to be a manager (goal)
Choose a role model who is a successful manager
Observe the behaviours of the role model
Practice these behaviours
Evaluate success
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APPLICATIONS: SOCIALIZATION AND
FEEDBACK
New employee: Socialization (induction/ mentoring/
coaching)
Newcomers learn the ropes simply by watching their
colleagues
Socialization is achieved without planned intervention,
rewards
It is being achieved by negative reinforcements – like being
ignored
Learn quickly what attitudes to take, dress code to obey
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APPLICATIONS: TRAINING
Learning theory
Social learning
theory: people
learn by observing
other persons/
models whom they
believe are
credible and
knowledgeable
Why
•Want to change
behaviour
How
•Demonstration
•Ask an excepted
leader (credible) to
demonstrate
behaviour
• Indicate what to
look out for
• Practice
• Feedback
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LEARNING CYCLE
YOUR EXPERIENCE
ACTIVIST
PLANNING HOW TO
APPLY LEARNING
REVIEWING YOUR
EXPERIENCE
Pragmatist
Reflector
INTEGRATING YOUR
EXPERIENCE WITH NEW
IDEAS AND SKILLS
[LEARNING]
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THEORIST
ADULT LEARNING
Adults have the need to know why they are learning
something
Have a need to be self-directed
Bring work-related experiences in the learning situation
Have a problem centered approach to learning
Motivated by extrinsic and extrinsic factors
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The Learning Organization
The Learning Organization
The concept of the learning organization is based on the
work of Chris Argyris and Donald Schön (Argyris and
Schön, 1974, 1978; Argyris, 1982)
Chris Argyris
(B 1923)
Donald Schön
(1930-1997)
Learning organization
An organizational form that enables individual learning to create valued
outcomes, such as innovation, efficiency, environmental alignment and
competitive advantage
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Reference: Page 123, 124
49 / 35
Huczynski & Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour 6e, © Pearson Education 2007
THE LEARNING ORGANIZATION SIGNIFICANCE
50 / 35
Why the learning organization concept has become significant:
Huczynski & Buchanan, Organizational
Behaviour 6e, © Pearson Education 2007
The production of goods and services increasingly involves sophisticated knowledge
Knowledge is, therefore, as valuable a resource as raw materials
Many organizations have lost knowledgeable staff through retirements and delayering
Information technologies are knowledge intensive
Some knowledge can have a short life span, made obsolete by innovation
Flexibility, creativity and responsiveness are now prized capabilities
Knowledge can thus be a source of competitive advantage for an organization
Reference: Page 123, 124
Peter Senge’s Five Disciplines
Systems
Thinking
Personal
Mastery
Team
Learning
Mental
Models
Shared
Vision
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Five Disciplines - expanded
Systems thinking
• mind shift & understanding change processes.
• ‘feedback’ to reinforce/counteract action.
• recognise recurring structures
• remove root causes/problems
Personal Mastery
• personal competence and vision
• developing patience to look at reality objectively
Mental Models
• changing ingrained assumptions about influencing factors.
Shared Vision
• use instincts, intuition by sharing personal vision
• pictures of the future
Team Learning
• dialogue, discussion, group relationships
• accelerate org. learning thru. Synergy 2+2=5
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IS YOURS A LEARNING
ORGANISATION?
•
•
•
Supportive Learning Environment
Concrete Learning Processes and Practices
Leadership that Reinforces Learning
Garvin, Edmondson, Gino, Harvard Business Review, March 2006
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CHALLENGES OF THE LEARNING
ORGANISATION
Linking organisational development programmes
with individual development programmes.
Designing training to accommodate
organisational and individual needs.
Links between individual learning and
organisational learning.
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KEY ISSUE: TRANSFER OF
LEARNING
•
•
•
The effective and continuing job application of
the knowledge and skills gained in training.
Has the training been appropriate and effective?
Has learning transfer taken place?
Are the new knowledge and skills being
supported by your workplace culture?
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TRANSFER CLIMATE
Those organisational supports and constraints
that influence whether trainees (employees) take
what they learn in one environment (training)
and actually use it in another environment (on
the job).
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Trainee
Characteristics
•Ability
•Personality
•Motivation
Training Design
•Principles of
Learning
•Sequencing
•Training Content
Learning
&
Retention
Generalization
&
Maintenance
Work Environment
•Support
•Opportunity to Use
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Transfer of Learning: Baldwin & Ford (1988)
READINESS FOR TRAINING
•
•
Readiness for training: a combination of employee
characteristics and positive work environment that
permit training.
The necessary employee characteristics:
Ability to learn the subject matter
Favorable attitudes toward the training
– Motivation to learn
–
–
•
A positive work environment encourages learning and
avoids interfering with training.
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TABLE 7.2: WHAT MANAGERS
SHOULD DO TO SUPPORT TRAINING
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I am always ready to learn although I do not
always like being taught. ~Winston Churchill
Education consists mainly of what we have
unlearned. ~Mark Twain
The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those
who cannot read and write, but those who cannot
learn, unlearn, and relearn. ~Alvin Toffler
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